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National parks and other protected areas have
special significance for tourism. They stand as
national icons or symbols of a destination. They
are attractions in their own right, and are important
sites not only for nature conservation but for a
range of recreational activities. In more recent
times they have become closely associated with new
forms of tourism, nature tourism and ecotourism
in particular. Because of their pre-eminence in
tourism, there is almost inevitable debate about the
amount and form that tourism may appropriately
take in such situations. The literature reports
concerns of overuse, trampling and other environmental
impacts, and considerable discussion exists
about recreational carrying capacity and other
management requirements.
In response, management practices have variously
attempted user education, nature interpretation,
the establishment of use fees, the granting of
permits and concessions, and other forms of
rationing. Currently, management practices focus
on environmental monitoring, impact assessment
�see impact assessment, environmental) and
defining limits of acceptable change. As tourism
has grown in size and scope, the management of
some national parks has recently required that
facilities that support �and encourage) high levels of
use be removed to outside park boundaries.
References
Allin, C.W. �1992) International Handbook of National
Parks and Nature Reserves, New York: Greenwood
Press.
International Union for the Conservation of
Nature �1975) United Nations List of National Parks
and Equivalent Reserves, Morges: ICUN.
ÐÐ �1978) Categories, Objectives and Criteria for
Protected Areas, Morges: IUCN.
DAVID G. SIMMONS, NEW ZEALAND
National Recreation and Park
Association
The National Recreation and Park Association
�NRPA) goes back to 1898 when some leading
superintendents of parks from Massachusetts met
National Restaurant Association 407
in Boston and formed the New England Association
of Park Superintendents. Between 1898 and
1965 several organisations were formed, including
the American Recreation Society which was
founded in 1946. With the emerging emphasis on
outdoor recreation during the late 1950s and early
1960s, new opportunities came for blending
recreation and park philosophies. Coupled with
increasing competition among recreation and park
related organisations, this process in 1965 created
incentives for the National Recreation Association
to merge with American Institute of Park Executives,
American Recreation Society, and the
National Conference on State Parks to form the
National Recreation and Park Association.
NRPA promotes the interests of the park and
recreation movement through public information,
political advocacy, research and professional development.
Through its divisions and programmes, the
association strives, among other things, to build
public awareness of the role of physical fitness in
health, encourages recreation among the elderly,
and promotes standards for recreation services for
the handicapped. Its National Therapeutic Recreation
Society is working to improve professional
qualifications and standards. Its publications include
Dateline:NRPA �bimonthly), Journal of Leisure
Research �a quarterly), Recreation and Parks Law
Reporter �quarterly) and Legal Issues in Recreation
Administration �quarterly). The headquarters of NRPA
is located in Alexandria, Virginia, United States.
TURGUT VAR, USA
National Restaurant Association
Since its founding in 1919, the mission of the
National Restaurant Association �NRA) has been
to protect, educate and promote the food service
sector and its 9.4 million employees. Membership
in this association provides a linkage to more than
30,000 members worldwide, representing 175,000
food service outlets including restaurant and
fast food outlets. Its membership includes a
variety of businesses, professionals and the academic
community associated with the food service
sector. Members of the association receive, among
other things, the monthly magazine Restaurant USA