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176 education level
Tourism is not a homogeneous industry, and
therefore it does not have common educational
requirements. Educational programmes likewise
show considerable diversity in most countries. Still
further, there is always the potential for disagreement
between priorities based on educational
values in the broadest sense on the one hand,
and the practical and business needs of the tourism
industry on the other.
See also: education policy; educational
effectiveness; education method; professionalism
education level
TOM BAUM, UK
The existing types of tourism education programmes
are diverse, differing greatly in duration,
content and the context within which they are
delivered. However, they can in general be grouped
into three levels: vocational training, professional
education and executive development. This
entry focuses on the first two levels.
Adequate vocational training is critical in order
to effectively deliver the products and services
required by the tourism industry. The main
objective is to teach skills that can be applied to a
specific position, often at the front-line or supervisory
level. The content of such programmes tends
to be highly practical, dealing with developing
certain skills and applying them to specific on-thejob
problems �Cooper and Westlake 1989). Examples
include training for hotel employees �front
desk, housekeeping), food and beverage personnel
�chef, bartender, waiter/waitress) and tourism
services �tour guide, travel counsellor, tour
operator).
Various tourism enterprises often participate
directly in vocational training by conducting `inhouse'
programmes for employees. In addition,
specialised certificate and diploma programmes are
offered either through public sector institutions
�such as technical institutes or colleges) or private
schools. The content of a vocational programme
will vary depending upon the particular occupation
for which individuals are being trained. However,
all vocational programmes should include two
components: acquisition of appropriate skills �both
technical and attitudinal) and opportunities for the
practical application of these skills.
For the first component, it is important to note
the inclusion of both technical and attitudinal
training. The former provides the techniques and
standards, whereas attitudinal training addresses
the issues of quality of service and the potential
problems caused by the cultural differences between
host and guest. The later is a very vital
part of vocational programmes because actual
`hands on' experience serves to enhance the
technical and attitudinal skills learned in the
classroom. Such experience may be accomplished
through site simulation �such as a student-operated
or hotel-operated restaurant situated on campus)
and/or cooperative programmes that include
actual placement in tourism positions.
In order to provide vocational training at
various levels, a tiered diploma or certificate
programme is most effective. Goeltom �1988)
suggests a four-tiered system: diploma I provides
training for entry level personnel �such as front desk
clerk); diploma II offers training for supervisory
level personnel �example, front office supervisor);
diploma III provides training for middle managerial
level personnel �such as rooms manager); and
diploma IV offers training for managerial level
personnel �such as hotel manager). At the first level,
short intensive programmes are most appropriate
in order to respond quickly to changing manpower
demands. At the other three levels, more flexible
training programmes are needed to accommodate
individuals that are already employed. For example,
customised programmes consisting of specially
designed training packages/modules should be
made available to those who are fully employed
and cannot enrol for the regular programme. At
these three higher levels, students should be taught
`on the job' training techniques so that, once back
in industry, they can instruct entry-level employees.
By hiring such graduates, even smaller property
members can provide in-house vocational training
programmes for lower level line personnel.
In contrast to vocational training, professional
education is generally typified by being more
academic in nature and generally occurs in a
university setting. Theoretical concepts and models
are provided, and the student's ability to
interpret, evaluate and analyse is developed