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36 attraction
that also consists of tourists and markers.
Attraction typologies vary considerably depending
on whether they are being used for marketing or
planning purposes. No site, sight or event is an
attractions in itself. It only becomes one when a
tourism system is created to designate and elevate it
to the status of an attraction. Almost any object ±
real or intangible ± may be designated as having
some special quality which allows it to be elevated
through advertising to the status of an attraction.
The only intrinsic requirement of the object is
that it is associated with a location. This
differentiates attractions from other consumable
goods. Rather than bringing the goods to the
consumer, the tourist must go to the attraction to
experience it. Thus, the system that creates and
supports an attraction must have three major
components to exist: an object or event located at a
site, a tourist or consumer, and a marker, an
image that tells the tourist why the object or event
is of interest. This definition has been widely
accepted since MacCanell's work on the semiotics
of tourism in the 1970s. It is around these
three basic elements that the entire tourism
industry is constructed.
The objects from which attractions are created
are typically environmental and cultural resources.
Tourism can be viewed as an industry
that turns these resources into products. From the
perspective of the tourist, they consist of objects to
see, activities to do and experiences to remember.
Most attractions, including events, have some type
of nucleus that epitomises the experience. How
this nucleus is presented is important in influencing
the experience. The tourist's expectations of the
attraction nucleus begin to be shaped from the very
first realisation that it exists. Through various types
of media �including word of mouth), an image of
the attraction is created over time, often well before
the actual trip. These sources of information are
known as generating markers as they are located in
the location from which the trip originates.
Expectations and anticipation continue to be
shaped as the trip is underway �through transit
markers) and, in spatial terms, the closer the tourist
comes to the attraction nucleus, the more prominent
the messages and markers become.
Marker messages come from all types of
communication, including schooling, news media
and popular media. The popularity of a book or
movie can create an attraction where none existed
before. Professional marketing firms are often hired
to create or change the image of an attraction. A
failure in the marker portion of the system can
often lead to visitor disappointment. Most major
destinations consist of a collection of attraction
nuclei, the most important of which are considered
primary while less important ones are considered
secondary and tertiary. From the tourist's perspective,
the destination itself may be considered as
much of an attraction as any of the separate
attraction components. This is especially true at the
scale of the major countries and regions of the
world. At the same time, if a primary attraction is
not included on an itinerary, most first-time
visitors to a destination will not consider taking the
tour.
Attractions may be either clustered in a single
location or distributed in a linear or dispersed
pattern. These different spatial patterns are
important in the planning and management of
attractions. Linear dispersion requires circuit touring
by automobile or rail, and accessibility is a
major concern in their planning and development.
Destinations in which attractions are clustered
must plan for a proper mix of activities to provide
variety and stimulation, which will encourage both
longer visitor stays and repeat visitation. The
clustering of attraction nuclei can also be used to
concentrate tourism in isolated enclaves, thereby
conserving natural resources �see conservation)
and limiting some of the negative impacts of
mass tourism. Such enclaves, however, can
sometimes turn into tourist ghettos.
The assessment of attractions is a common part
of planning and marketing and is undertaken to
understand the competitive advantage of one
place over others. Attractions are inventoried, and
their potential for development �or need for
protection) are studied. No single agreed-upon
typology of attractions exists to conduct an
inventory, in part because most places have their
own distinctive qualities. Attraction inventories
have been approached in one or more of three
ways. The most common approach is to group
attractions into nominal categories �also referred to
as formal and ideographic). Such categories
include cultural artefacts and nature. Examples