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326 internationalisation
ecological diversity of destinations throughout the
world. Based on the `contact model' of social
psychology of intergroup conflict, which stresses
that contact promotes the potential for understanding
and acceptance among members of
different groups, it is argued that tourism, by
bringing together hosts and guests from various
countries, helps to bridge psychological and
cultural gaps promoting trust, respect and understanding.
In a throwback to the Grand Tour of
the past, contemporary demands for speciality
educational, heritage and cultural tourism
represent formal examples of tourists engaged in
actively learning about the countries and peoples
they are visiting.
The 1963 United Nations Conference on
international tourism proclaimed that tourism
was mind-broadening and ennobling; at the 1980
World Tourism Conference in Manila, it was
declared that tourism can be a vital force for
peace. This concept went on to gain prominence
in Vancouver, Canada in October 1988 at the
international conference on `Tourism: A Vital
Force for Peace', which promoted the idea that
tourism results in positive changes in the attitudes
of tourists towards the host culture contributing
towards world peace.
While there is agreement that tourism to some
extent facilitates interaction between different
groups, there are few empirical studies which have
investigated the level of international understanding
generated and the potential for tourism to
promote peace raising debate in research. Crick
�1989) suggests that in some regard this line of
reasoning is rhetorical, and tourism may even
perpetuate and reinforce stereotypes. Reporting
on four empirical studies investigating the contribution
of tourism to better understanding
between unfriendly nations, Pizam �1996) speculated
that tourism by itself does not automatically
contribute to positive attitude changes or to the
reduction of perceived national and ethnic differences.
The motivation of hosts and guests, preconceived
images and perceptions, type of trip, form
and level of tourism development, and degree
and form of interaction between hosts and guests
all impact the level of international understanding
generated. Trips which present limited or staged
interaction between the two groups may reinforce
stereotypes. While tourism has the potential to
increase international understanding through cultural
contact and educational tours, not all forms of
tourism promote conditions for increased understanding
between different groups.
References
Crick, M. �1989) `Representations of international
tourism in the social sciences: sun, sex, sights,
savings, and servility', Annual Review of Anthropology
18: 307±44. �Outlines various perspectives
of tourism in social sciences.)
Pizam, A. �1996) `Does tourism promote international
understanding between unfriendly nations?'
in A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld �eds),
Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues,
Chichester: Wiley, 203±13. �Examines past
studies and questions if all forms of tourism
promote international understanding.)
Further reading
D'Amour, L. �1988) `Tourism: the world's peace
industry', Journal of Travel Research 27: 35±40.
�Examines the potential of tourism to act as a
force for world peace.)
internationalisation
DAVID J. TELFER, CANADA
The growing phenomenon of interaction and
activity occurring across international boundaries
is known as internationalisation. In respect of
tourism, its significance derives from the acceptance
of tourism as an explicit strategy of economic
development in Third World nations. Sociocultural
clashes and the practices of multinational
firms mean that internationalisation is far
from leading to global homogenisation.
See also: globalisation
ROBERT B. POTTER, UK