Untitled

358 life cycle, destination
policy implications', Journal of Environmental
Management 31�4): 327±33.
MYRIAM JANSEN-VERBEKE, BELGIUM
life cycle, destination
This term describes the temporal pattern of
development of destinations. Introduced by
Stansfield �1978), the concept of a development
cycle is much older and can be found in nineteenth-century
literature on the development of
resorts. These places were described as proceeding
from exclusive development through expansion
and into decline as fashions changed and competition
developed. A description of this process in
Mediterranean destinations is given by Christaller
�1963). Plog �1973) related the rise and fall of
destinations to the characteristics of the tourists,
suggesting that destinations proceeded along a
spectrum related to different market segments at
different stages in their development. He raised the
issue of inevitability of decline as older destinations
become less attractive to a decreasing market.
These ideas were taken further by Butler �1980),
who proposed that destinations evolve through a
distinctive cycle within which there are six identifiable
stages characterised by specific attributes of
the tourist and the nature and scale of development.
This cycle took the form of an S-shaped
curve. The first stage is exploration, in which there
are few tourists and no development specifically
for tourism. The second stage is involvement, in
which primarily local residents offer facilities for
tourists and regular but small numbers of visitors
arrive. The development phase is characterised by
extensive establishment of tourism facilities, a large
number of visitors, marketing of the destination
and the influx of external capital. The fourth
phase, stagnation, displays a declining growth rate
in development and visitor numbers, the latter
reaching their peak in this period. Most of the
facilities will be under the control of non-locals and
the destination will be experiencing problems from
competition. The destination may then go into a
decline phase, which may become more rapid as
there is a lack of investment and renewal and it
becomes less attractive. Other possibilities include
a steady state pattern or, following considerable
reinvestment and/or the addition of a major new
attraction �such as gambling), the destination
may undergo rejuvenation.
This model has been widely and frequently
applied. While variations to the general pattern
have been found, mostly reflecting specific local
conditions, and criticisms have been made of the
unidirectional nature of the model and its implied
inevitability, its general arguments remain accepted
in the literature.
See also: life cycle; product life cycle
References
Butler, R.W. �1980) `The concept of a tourist area
cycle of evolution: implications for the management
of resources', The Canadian Geographer 24�2):
5±12.
Christaller, W. �1963) `Some considerations of
tourism location in Europe: the peripheral
regions', Regional Science Association Papers 12:
95±105.
Plog, S. �1973) `Why destination areas rise and fall
in popularity', Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly 13±16.
Stansfield, C. �1978) Àtlantic City and the resort
cycle: background to the legalization of gambling',
Annals of Tourism Research 5�2): 238±51.
lifeseeing
RICHARD BUTLER, UK
Lifeseeing programmes, often organised, provide
tourists with the opportunity to experience
particular aspects of the host culture. This can
also include visiting tourism highlights and attractions
of the destination. Local experts usually
coordinate the lifeseeing portion of the programme.
Home visits are also arranged. Axle
Dessau, former director of the Danish National
Tourist Office, is credited with articulating this
form of tourism.
See also: sightseeing
CHARLES R. GOELDNER, USA