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See also: drinking; licensing
Further reading
Katsigris, C. and Porter, M. �1991) The Bar and
Beverage Book, New York: Wiley. �Provides an
overview of bars and beverages.)
Lipinski, R. and Lipinski, K. �1989) Professional
Guide to Alcoholic Beverages, New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold. �Discusses storing, serving,
and selling wines, beers and spirits.)
alienation
JOHN R. WALKER, USA
Alienation is the sense of estrangement from a
situation, society, group or culture. It is the feeling
or state of uninvolvement, of literally being an
alien. In other words, it suggests the sense of not
belonging.
Although use of the term can be traced back to
classical philosophy, its modern usage is most
closely associated with sociology and the work
of Karl Marx �1818±83). According to Marx, the
advent of the Industrial Revolution, capitalism and
the ensuing division of labour and `relations of
production' between the workers and the capitalists
�the owners of production systems) resulted in
people becoming increasingly alienated from the
society in which they lived and worked. Continuing
economic and technological advance, particularly
in transport and communications, has done little to
reverse this trend and, for many, alienation is a
defining characteristic of modern societies. That is,
their people are believed to suffer from a feeling of
isolation, placelessness, powerlessness and
meaninglessness �see anomie).
However, tourism provides the opportunity to
escape, albeit temporarily, from this alienated
condition, and it is thus within the sphere of
motivation that the concept of alienation is of
most relevance to tourism. For example, Cohen's
�1979) phenomenology of tourist experiences is
based upon the notion that people experience
varying degrees of alienation within their home
environment �see continuum models). Those
who are more alienated, whose spiritual centre lies
`out there', are more disposed to seek out tourism
experiences that will embellish or add meaning to
their lives than those less alienated tourists who
seek more recreational experiences. In a similar
vein, MacCannell suggests that all people experience
alienation in modern societies and tourists
are, in effect, modern day pilgrims seeking reality
or authenticity in other times and places. In this
latter sense, tourism can also be considered a form
of time travel. Thus, the increasing popularity of
heritage tourism is also linked to alienation in as
much as the desire to visit historic sites may be
motivated by the nostalgic yearning �see nostalgia)
for a premodern �implicitly, non-alienated)
era.
References
Cohen, E. �1979) À Phenomenology of Tourist
Experiences', Sociology 13: 179±201.
Further reading
MacCannell, D. �1989) The Tourist:A New Theory of
the Leisure Class, 2nd edn, New York: Schocken
Books.
Sharpley, R. �1994) Tourism, Tourists and Society,
Huntingdon: Elm Publications.
allocentric
RICHARD SHARPLEY, UK
Stanley Plog proposed that travellers could be
classified along a single travel confidence dimension
which resulted in three major categories;
allocentrics, midcentrics and psychocentrics. Allocentrics
are confident, enthusiastic, internationally
oriented travellers. The scheme was popularised by
being widely reported in tourism textbooks, but its
continuing usefulness is questionable due to its
simple unidimensional nature, lack of measurement
details and its dominant North American
focus.
See also: motivation
allocentric 19
PHILIP L. PEARCE, AUSTRALIA