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organisation perpetuates its culture. If a cultural
change is to be achieved, assuming that the
organisation desires such a change in the first
place, managers must intervene at these points.
References
Deal, T.E. and Kennedy, A.A. �1982) Corporate
Culture:The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life,
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Gross, W. and Shichman, S. �1987) `How to grow
an organisational culture?', Personnel, September,
5256.
Handy, C. �1987) The Gods of Management, London:
Souvenir Press.
Harrison, R. �1972) `Understanding your organisation's
character', Harvard Business Review May±
June: 119±28.
Schein, E.H. �1985) Organizational Culture and Leadership,
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
culture, invention of
BVSAN MURTHY, SINGAPORE
Invention of culture conveys the dynamic theoretical
perspective which sees culture as constantly in
process, as defined and redefined in new contexts.
It is opposed to a more traditional conception of
culture as fixed and stable. In tourism, the local
culture presented for touristic consumption is
frequently not `timeless', as sometimes stated in
brochures, but is usually recently created to satisfy
the preconceptions of modern tourists.
culture, organisational
EDWARD M. BRUNER, USA
Organisational culture is the summation of the
beliefs, expectations, norms and values commonly
shared by all the organisational members. Used
interchangeably with the term corporate culture,
the term reflects the basic philosophy and core
values �such as the quality, service, cleanliness and
value ethos of McDonald's) of an organisation.
Within an overall organisational culture, there are
usually subcultures reflecting the different environ-
ments and experiences shared by groups of
employees.
See also: culture, corporate
culture, tourism
culture, tourism 129
BVSAN MURTHY, SINGAPORE
Tourism or tourist culture is a vague concept that
describes behaviours and institutions which can be
observed at tourism destinations but which are not
straightforwardly parts of the cultures of either the
host society or the visiting tourists. Initially a
negative concept, it is defined by what it is not,
rather than having common content wherever
found. If a genuine culture belongs to a particular
people, an independent community of a selfsustaining
way of life, tourist culture is only a
part-culture, a symbiotic or hybrid form incapable
of sustaining itself. However, hybrid or partcultures
are becoming the global norm in this
increasingly interconnected world, where there are
few truly isolated populations or independent
communities. Tourist culture, from this point of
view, is one example typical of the emerging mix of
cultures resulting from internationalisation,
that is, the transcultural migrations of labour,
capital, technology, ideology and images.
The exact nature of these new tourist cultures
becomes clearer if one uses an analogy with the
already well-explored variety of tourist arts, which
are one aspect of this culture. It has been shown
that the various hybrid art forms that result from or
cater to tourism can be analysed by the intersection
of two variables. One is the formal source or origin
of the new cultural forms, ranging from the host's
local culture to the tourists' imported culture�s), or
more or less complete novelties emerging at the
contact site. The second variable relates to the
intended audience of the new cultural production,
either the tourists or the hosts �or both). A few wellknown
cases can illustrate possible forms of tourist
culture and arts.
The host's traditional cultural productions are
often modified for touristic consumption, typically
for ethnic or cultural tourism. Examples range
from dances in Bali or shadow plays in Java,
shortened and simplified for this purpose; Chinese