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or over primal peoples. First, primitive-environmentalist
outlooks tend to be the deepest philosophical vista on
indigenous self determination, and regard tribal
cultures as a superior adaptation, seeking to stop
economic developments that threaten such
peoples. This outlook promotes the provision of
cultural/environmental sanctuaries, and strongly
advocates conservation. Tourism is seen as a
powerful and damaging agent of Western/nonindigenous
infiltration. Second, liberal-political
outlooks tend to regard indigenous people as
economically and politically oppressed, and seek
to help them defend their cultural integrity through
liberation and self-determination. This outlook
promotes political mobilisation and mutual
consciousness-raising about the plight of the
indigenous people. It holds that tourism proposals
should only be encouraged where they have
received extremely careful scrutiny, and where
there is substantive local community involvement
and local rights-of-veto. Third, conservative-humanist
outlooks tend to regard progress as inevitable, and
seek to help the local population make the most of
their new opportunities. This outlook promotes
eventual integration of the indigenous population
into the wider national system, via humanitarian
assistance programmes, provided that they can
help `preserve' ethnic identity and pride. Tourism is
still seen to be not only a potentially disruptive
force but also capable of yielding many rewards for
the primal population. These three stances on
cultural conservation/development are rather
idealised, and each has its army of detractors.
References
Hollinshead, K. �1996) `Marketing and metaphysical
realism: the disidentification of Aboriginal
life and traditions through tourism', in R. Butler
and T. Hinch �eds), Tourism and Indigenous Peoples,
London: International Thomson Business Press,
308±48.
Kroeber, A.L. and Kluckhohn, C. �1963) Culture:A
Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, New
York: Vantage Books.
Lanfant, M.-F. �1995) `Introduction', in M.-F.
Lanfant, J.B. Allcock and E.M. Bruner �eds),
International Tourism:Identity and Change, London:
Sage, 1±23.
Williams, R. �1983) Keywords, London: Fontana.
cultural survival
KEITH HOLLINSHEAD, UK
Cultural survival is a term indicating Fourth
World, indigenous peoples' struggles to maintain
their own societies and cultural identities while
embedded in nation-states and global economies.
Ethnic tourism or cultural tourism and
conservation in protected areas are sometimes
avenues toward cultural survival if tourist
commoditisation is under the control of the
peoples themselves.
cultural tourism
cultural tourism 125
MARGARET B. SWAIN, USA
When Herodotus of Halicarnassus first set eyes on
the Pyramids 2,700 years ago, he was a cultural
tourist. His comments regarding the graffiti on the
monuments and the bevy of guides available for
hire indicates that he was far from the first tourist
to visit these monuments and try to gain some
understanding about the people who built them.
For much of written history, what is now
considered tourism was related to humankind's
insatiable curiosity. The desire to travel to learn
about other people and their culture has always
been an essential motivator. Hunziker and Krapf
expressed this well when they pointed out, `There
is no tourism without culture' �World Tourism
Organization 1995: 6). It was only with the arrival
of mass tourism a scant 150 years ago that
tourism took on its modern hedonistic and less
enlightened complexion.
Defining what cultural tourism constitutes is a
continuing debate. As Williams points out, `culture
is one of the two or three most complicated words
in the English language' �1983: 87). This complexity
is compounded by prefixing it with the word
tourism. As a result, there is no shortage of
attempts to define this phenomena �World Tourism
Organization 1995). The majority of definitions
suggest learning about others and their way of life
as a major element. Learning about self is a second