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productivity in respect of one input). The latter is
most commonly done, usually by considering
labour productivity at the expense of other inputs.
This is also a justifiable approach for industries
such as tourism and hospitality, where material
and other costs are arguably small compared with
the labour input.
Productivity is fairly easy to conceptualise if it is
concerned with manufacturing industry, or even
with the national product of a whole region or
country. However, it is not clear whether it is an
appropriate concept to apply to services such as
hospitality and tourism. One problem is that
services do not produce a product, and the value
of their contribution to wealth is unknown. Jones
and Hall �1995) suggest that productivity implies a
manufacturing paradigm, which is not applicable
to service industries. However, Heap �1995)
proposes that productivity is appropriate for
tourism and hospitality so long as it reflects
customer needs.
Two parallel concepts, efficiency and effectiveness,
help to explain the role of productivity in
the provision of services. Efficiency refers simply to
the most cost-effective use of resources, so that high
efficiency would seem to bring high productivity.
However, the use of resources is not necessarily
productive, if it does not also satisfy the customer
or the tourist. Effectiveness refers to the way in
which a service operation meets its objectives �of
satisfying customers and achieving repeat business).
Thus, in order to be productive, a service industry
needs to be both efficient �in order to achieve shortterm
financial/cost-effectiveness goals) and effective
�in order to achieve short-term financial/costeffectiveness
goals) and effective �in order to
achieve longer term goals of customer satisfaction
and competitiveness).
References
Heap, J. �1996) `Top-line productivity: a model for
the hospitality and tourism industry', in N. Johns
�ed.), Productivity Management in Hospitality and
Tourism, London: Cassell, 2±18.
Jones, P. and Hall, M. �1996) `Productivity and the
new service paradigm, or service and the neoservice
paradigm?', in N. Johns �ed.), Productivity
Management in Hospitality and Tourism, London:
Cassell, 227±40.
professional native
NICK JOHNS, UK
`Professional native' is a somewhat critical term for
a local person who assumes the role of culture
broker by interpreting the indigenous culture
for foreign tourists, one who usually seeks payment
for services rendered. Professional natives need an
understanding of the tourists' language and culture
and offer themselves as experts on the traditional
culture, but in their own society they may occupy
marginal positions, lacking prestige, power or
expertise.
See also: entrepreneurship; natives
professionalism
professionalism 465
EDWARD M. BRUNER, USA
The concept of professionalism cannot be easily
separated from the study of ethics. The term
`ethics', which means character, is derived from the
Greek word `ethos'. In its basic dimension, the
study of professionalism is concerned with `taking
the correct action' in a situation. This stance has
roots in Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative,
which implies that an individual's actions should be
based, not on rightness or wrongness, but on `good
will'. At an optimum outcome, behaving in a
professional manner involves acting in a normative
manner that results in a positive service occurrence.
Professionalism in the tourism industry is
highly sought after by service providers in lodging
accommodation, travel agencies, tour companies,
airlines, food service, transportation,
entertainment and attractions, as well as in
education and tourism-related associations. The
very nature of the industry requires that an
individual, immediate work group and organisation
act in a socially responsible manner. Given
this view, the desire to act in a professional
manner has become a primary mandate for