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26 anticipation
Further reading
CastanÄeda, Q. �1996) In the Museum of Maya Culture:
Touring ChicheÂn ItzaÂ, Minneapolis, MN: University
of Minnesota Press. �Provides an example of the
anthropology of tourism.)
Crick, M. �1994) Ànthropology and the study of
tourism: theoretical and personal reflections' , in
Resplendent Sites, Discordant Voices:Sri Lankans and
International Tourism, Char: Harwood Academic
Publishers, 1±17. �An ethnography with a cogent
overview of the global political economy of
tourism.)
Graburn, N. �1996) `Tourism', in D. Levinson and
M. Ember �eds), The Encyclopedia of Cultural
Anthropology, vol. 4, New York: Henry Holt &
Co, 1316±20. �An introduction, with emphasis
on pilgrimage, play, historical and comparative
perspectives in the study of tourism.)
Nash, D. �1996) Anthropology of Tourism, Oxford:
Elsevier Science. �Provides perspectives on tourism
as a form of development or acculturation,
as a personal transition, and as a social superstructure.)
Selwyn, T. �1995) `The anthropology of tourism:
reflections on the state of the art', in A.V. Seaton
�ed.), Tourism:The State of the Art, Chichester:
Wiley, 729±36. �A overview of the field with
insight into future directions.)
Smith, V. �1989) Host and Guests:The Anthropology of
Tourism, 2nd edn, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press. �A classic collection of
articles which helped to popularise the study of
tourism.)
anticipation
MARGARET B. SWAIN, USA
Anticipation is the first phase of the tourism
experience, followed by travel to the site, onsite
stay, return travel and post-tourism recollections.
As the first phase, it is an umbrella term for
the heightened attention, information collection
and tourist attitudes which precede the experience.
Studying attitudes in the anticipation phase is
valuable for marketing projects and satisfaction
research.
Anticipation may vary in its time frames. For
many tourists there is a two to three-month period
between making bookings and being at the
destination, while others might have much
longer or shorter anticipation periods. The length
of the period will affect the processes which are
active during this phase. Some prepare themselves
extensively for their experience, particularly when
this anticipated experience involves novel cultural
contexts and high risk medical areas �see health).
These physical and conceptual preparations for
tourism are invariably augmented by a spontaneous
information search, making news items and
other material pertaining to the destination more
noticeable to the tourist and more relevant than
before.
Tourists' anticipation of their holiday or vacation
may be a mix of holistic destination images
and specific expectations. Such expectations are a
subgroup of attitudes which they will hold towards
tourism products and services. It is commonly
suggested that attitudes or specific expectations
held in the anticipation phase need to be equalled
or surpassed for the traveller to have a satisfying
holiday experience. There are some problems with
this approach. First, it fails to consider that the
experience may also alter the more holistic
destination images and attributes which could by
themselves contribute substantially to satisfaction.
Further, the close alignment between specific
expectations and outcomes may be conceptually
sound but in practice difficult to assess. For
example it is uncertain exactly when expectations
should be measured, since in a long anticipation
phase pre-travel attitudes might change markedly
as new information is absorbed. Second, the
logistical difficulties of accessing tourists in their
own homes in the anticipation phase may limit
effective research in this area. More importantly,
there is the problem of reactivity in measuring
expectations. The questions asked may focus
tourists' minds on issues which they had not
considered and shape the very attitudes being
assessed. Measuring holistic images and using
motives as a level of analysis rather than expectations
may be possible solutions to these dilemmas.
PHILIP L. PEARCE, AUSTRALIA