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any formal association that is neither a government
nor hopes to replace a government or its
officials, is funded from voluntary contributions
and is not involved in for-profit activity, and does
not engage in or advocate violence. The NGOs
must support the goals of the United Nations or
other governmental agency that recognises them. A
number of such organisations, due to their scope,
have direct involvement in tourism.
non-profit organisation
ALAN A. LEW, USA
Non-profit organisations are those with a dominant
service or welfare, as opposed to profit, orientation.
In tourism, these may include organisations
providing a service, including national, regional or
local tourism offices, tourism marketing bureaus,
conservation bodies or trusts owning or managing
attractions �like national park authorities),
and welfare organisations such as social tourism
operators and other charitable bodies.
Norway
RICHARD SHARPLEY, UK
The long alpine coastline and fjords surrounded by
steep mountains with waterfalls are chief attractions
of Norway's natural scenery. The country's
tourism industry started in the romantic period of
the nineteenth century. Today, Germans and
Scandinavian neighbours dominate inbound tourism,
which is concentrated to the summer season
when the midnight sun is visible north of the Arctic
Circle.
JAN VIDAR HAUKELAND, NORWAY
JENS KRISTIAN STEEN JACOBSEN, NORWAY
nostalgia
Nostalgia is a feeling of loss or anxiety about the
passage of time, accompanied by a desire to
experience again some aspects of the past.
Although nostalgia started out as the morbid
disease of homesickness, a spatial displacement
cured by going home, it has come to mean a
sentimental awareness of temporal disorientation
to be countered only by symbolic time travel.
During the past hundred years, nostalgia has
emerged as a major motivation for tourism
�Dann 1996). Modernity, the belief in progress
and rational solutions to problems, automatically
highlights both present imperfections and lost of
the past �Lowenthal 1985). Postmodernity, the
dissolution of boundaries, of high±low distinctions
and of colonially organised societies, creates a
pastiche in which often incongruous fragments
may be incorporated for present interests �Graburn
1995) �see also postmodernism).
Attempts to compensate for nostalgic loss result
in different types of tourism. Personal nostalgia, the
awareness of ageing or of becoming marginal in a
changing society, may spur a return to earlier stages
of life, as simple as visiting the places of one's youth
or childhood or enjoying a reunion with long
familiar friends and relatives, or perhaps trying to
behave or be treated as in past times by engaging in
sports, having a `second honeymoon' or being
pampered as in childhood. Even `fat farms' and
health clinics may be nostalgic efforts to return to
former physical states.
Equally important are social and environmental
nostalgia, born of the fear that society is changing
too fast and for the worse, or that present human
civilisation is too artificial and is damaging nature.
Historical nostalgia is an enjoyment of the past,
along with pride in the achievements of one's
forbears. It is reflected in the ubiquity of heritage
tourism and the growing phenomenon of historical
re-enactments. Stronger forms of social nostalgia
lead one to seek simpler and presumably more
authentic lives of rural or exotic peoples, to
represent a more humane past. Nostalgia, precipitated
by the crisis of confidence in man's ability
to manage the world, is manifested in the search
for and immersion in nature, devoid of other
people, representative of how the earth was before
humans despoiled it.
See also: regression
nostalgia 415