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humour Humour refers to a sense of the ludicrous, absurdly incongruous, comic or amusing in a happening, action, situation or expression of ideas. Tourism is a rich source of humour because it brings into juxtaposition people of different cultures, interests and expectations with a consequent high potential for contrast, miscommunication and misunderstanding. Tourists in particular, because they are in an unaccustomed environment, may engage in inappropriate behaviours with bizarre consequences. Lack of familiarity between tourists and residents may lead both to fall back on stereotypes to guide their interactions and this increases the likelihood of occurrence of communication breakdowns. Since most people in the Western world are familiar with tourism situations, they constitute a setting to which they can easily relate and which is readily exploited by humorists in many forms of media including novels, film, T-shirts and cartoons. Although there is a wealth if examples of tourism humour, these have yet to be collated or examined as the subject of rigorous research. Thus, tourism humour is a widespread phenomenon which has yet to receive the academic attention it deserves. Further reading Coren, A. �ed.) �1987) `Travel number', Punch 292, 21 January. �Contains many excellent examples of tourism humour.) Lodge, D. �1991) Paradise News, Harmondsworth: Penguin. �A humorous novel.) Hungary GEOFFREY WALL, CANADA Hungary played a key role in the changes that took place in the Eastern European region. The transformation from a monolithic structure to a multiparty system was carried out peacefully, according to a national consensus. The Republic of Hungary is a parliamentary democracy. The level of political openness of the country has significantly increased the interest in Hungary Hungary 291 which in turn contributes to development of investment and tourism. As with all the ex-socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Hungary is faced by serious economic problems. The acceleration of inflation is coupled with a decrease in production, and the efforts to reduce the national debt have weighed down on the standard of living. One of the most important indicators of the economic transformation is the privatisation process, which is still under way. But as the result of this process, the level of unemployment is continually increasing. Despite these problems, Hungary has a stable economy in the region which appears in the expending of foreign investments. Over the past decades Hungary has attracted millions of tourists, partly due to its advantageous location in central Europe and partly due to its special political-economic system. In 1992, 20.2 million international tourists spent $1.23 billion. In 1997 these numbers were 17.3 million and $2.6 billion, respectively. However, as a result of the changes of the 1990s, the dynamic growth in tourism has been modified to some extent. Although the number of tourists exceeds by nearly four times the population of Hungary, the ratio of tourists has decreased, the use of registered accommodations is continuously reducing and the structure of main generating countries has been altered. In respect to domestic and international tourists, Budapest and Lake Balaton represent the main attractions. About 60 per cent of the total foreign tourism takes place in these regions, and only 40 per cent of that is distributed among the other regions of Hungary. This territorial concentration is coupled with a large seasonal fluctuation, which worsens the negative impacts of tourism. In order to stop this process, the country has to change its tourism development strategy, Instead of mass tourism, Hungary has to offer special tourism products that meet the requirement of sustainability and are in harmony with the international trends. Hungary has a multi-level tourism coordination system. The National Tourism Committee is the highest decisive and consultative body in the Ministry of Economics. The decisions and directives of the committee are carried out by the Tourism Department of the ministry. The Hungar-
292 hyperreality ian Tourism Corporation is founded and supported by the ministry taking over the tasks concerning research, marketing, promotion, development, education and control of the Tourism Development Fund from the Tourism Department. hyperreality CSILLA JANDALA, HUNGARY During recent decades, distinctions between `the real' and `the represented' have become problematic as one travels and experiences places. To Baudrillard, one increasingly consumes signs or copies rather than real entities themselves. When the simulation of things is particularly ubiquitous or spectacular, hyperreality results, constituting a state of manipulated discourse where referential reason disappears ± a realm where illusion is not achievable because the real itself is no longer knowable or attainable. Images projected in tourism frequently habituate people to hyperreal replica worlds which are surreal and exhilarative to some, but depthless, inauthentic, and commoditised �see commoditisation) to others. KEITH HOLLINSHEAD, UK
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Chief editor Jafar Jafari Universit
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viii List of contributors Frances B
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x List of contributors Peter Grabow
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xii List of contributors Andrew Loc
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xiv List of contributors Robert A.
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xvi List of contributors Betty Weil
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xviii Introduction mission-driven c
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xx Introduction receiving countries
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xxii Introduction why in this early
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Writing a full and fair acknowledge
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xxvi Entry list bar Barbados bed an
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xxviii Entry list ecoresort ecotour
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xxx Entry list industrial tourism i
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xxxii Entry list New Zealand non-di
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xxxiv Entry list service quality se
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Aborigine Having reviewed research
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initial phase in a developing econo
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Capital expenditure results in the
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evolving �autonomous) cultural sy
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their social practices and the cont
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not always a concern since they are
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The image technique with a linkage-
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than monocultures. Furthermore, it
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airline Airlines �air carriers) p
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See also: drinking; licensing Furth
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`alternative' philosophy can be exp
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developing conceptual constructs. T
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since the 1970s have been from this
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anti-tourism Anti-tourism is a gene
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guards and restricting access. Whil
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a much-needed source of local incom
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Association Internationale d'Expert
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attitudes. Contemporary thinking ab
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of the former include special struc
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with the work of Heider, who noted
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The real picture is in stark contra
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tourism originating in the Americas
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Fourth is the critical approach. Su
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interface ensures that such applica
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foreign investment) triggered by fa
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locations provide opportunities tha
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Mishan, E.J. �ed.) �1994) Cost
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eserved for national or regional to
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the figures for 1986 and 1987. Howe
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strategies or modes of presentation
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necessary when actual results vary
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Burnout Inventory Manual, 2nd edn,
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cafeteria A cafeteria is a self-ser
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the United States, although this pe
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down places. Their lower prices ten
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cannot be an anchor until there has
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ship between number of users �den
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ased on theoretical reasoning which
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of their home countries, and it is
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4.52 million departures with a 21 p
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sources such as grants, membership,
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they will have to pay. It is also a
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as a separate classification becaus
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code in their reservation systems t
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contracts. Such statements insure m
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things/events/places/narratives bec
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mix that includes multiple media an
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esidents. This emergent industry is
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tend to specialise in the productio
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of costs or being a cost leader imp
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and a rigorous test to gain admissi
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Veblen, T. �1970 [1899]) The Theo
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not reflect the characteristics of
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were changing in time. After the wa
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Linked to this evolution, host comm
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enefits, costs and spin-offs whethe
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fully chosen, implemented and carri
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usinesses, then the corporate struc
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afting and river cruising opportuni
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cross-cultural education Cross-cult
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studies of the differential impact
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architectural heritage. The governm
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or over primal peoples. First, prim
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may be trying to understand the str
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organisation perpetuates its cultur
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arts and crafts of Native peoples a
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$3.7 billion. The average number of
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combine his experience and intuitio
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measured by the amount of money spe
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season and staggering school holida
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demonstration effects. With the dev
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Asia and Latin America. One could a
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attractions. They include basic inf
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destination management. DMOs have b
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intervene in the economic and socia
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network of classifications that nor
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organisational norms and standards.
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distance decay There are costs invo
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operators and travel agencies that
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`discover' or connect to the essent
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of the population, and the proporti
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local governments. Given the nature
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Samuelson, P.A. and Nordhaus, W.D.
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and on-the-job capabilities of all
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and a number of elective courses th
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potential inefficiency. There are f
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feasibility of the start-up and ope
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include how to communicate the theo
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�Cooper and Westlake 1989). The u
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working skills for tourism and its
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time or inclination to develop expe
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programme emphasises general manage
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most common forms of recreation for
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some fifteen universities and more
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Science, University of Colorado.
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in such enclaves have no need to le
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See also: culture broker; education
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Congestion and overtaxing of infras
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overview of research in the physica
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cesses for meeting regulatory requi
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eroticism This term captures the se
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English, French, German and Portugu
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does lead to standardised attractio
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ethnicity changes in association wi
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Therefore, it is surprising that th
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Reference Boorstin, D. �1961) The
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excursion An excursion is a short p
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See also: cross-cultural management
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esearcher participating in and faci
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facilitation The concept of facilit
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hand, factor analysis provides for
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authors �Garcia-Ramon et al. 1995
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concept, number and type of hotel r
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mine what is meaningful to them. In
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press event, French officials estim
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The tourism industry is well develo
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used grease are also subtracted fro
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attempt to isolate and measure thos
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either on a regional basis �as wi
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diversified in terms of different c
Page 274 and 275: succeed in the United States, compa
Page 276 and 277: gambling Gambling is an activity th
Page 278 and 279: game park reserve Game park reserve
Page 280 and 281: characteristics laid down by their
Page 282 and 283: usually considered to be an object-
Page 284 and 285: employing a framework based on supp
Page 286 and 287: margins and causing some high-profi
Page 288 and 289: tourism) cannot be adequately studi
Page 290 and 291: y business travel and travel by per
Page 292 and 293: and Political Analysis, Cambridge:
Page 294 and 295: visitors through modern equivalents
Page 296 and 297: for low-income domestic tourists, t
Page 298 and 299: Tourism in Islands and Small States
Page 300 and 301: tality to guests is based on rules
Page 302 and 303: feature of Murray was the commitmen
Page 304 and 305: gender, ethnicity, employment and t
Page 306 and 307: elated problems which includes the
Page 308 and 309: hedonism Hedonism is the unbridled
Page 310 and 311: The Natural and Built Environment,
Page 312 and 313: The other main strand of tourism hi
Page 314 and 315: and a second generation of camps wh
Page 316 and 317: y advancing tourism development in
Page 318 and 319: y the nobility suddenly found they
Page 320 and 321: German gast: stranger, foreigner, e
Page 322 and 323: education courses or training modul
Page 326 and 327: iconography Illustration by visual
Page 328 and 329: of the ideology of the picturesque
Page 330 and 331: are often positive and the environm
Page 332 and 333: improving environmental performance
Page 334 and 335: marking. Successful implementation
Page 336 and 337: doubling of passenger transport out
Page 338 and 339: Spice Islands ± have occupied a sp
Page 340 and 341: References Leiper, N. �1995) Tour
Page 342 and 343: property management system used in
Page 344 and 345: economic sectors, takes the ad hoc
Page 346 and 347: esearch, advancement of knowledge i
Page 348 and 349: International Academy for the Study
Page 350 and 351: treaties are still governed by thes
Page 352 and 353: power to the community, a concept t
Page 354 and 355: and recommended practices are adopt
Page 356 and 357: International Society of Travel and
Page 358 and 359: erally did not mind using local tou
Page 360 and 361: Internet The Internet is a public c
Page 362 and 363: intervening opportunity Destination
Page 364 and 365: investment can include increases in
Page 366 and 367: acts'. in A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld
Page 368 and 369: unique feature. Despite this, touri
Page 370 and 371: Further reading Ministry of Transpo
Page 372 and 373: perspectives, including those of th
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igour. The main sectors covered by
Page 376 and 377:
Kaabah The Kaabah is a cube-shaped
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at the bottom of the knowledge acqu
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and elsewhere, obviously have had d
Page 382 and 383:
variety of offerings and niche mark
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financial and human resources. Ther
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schemes in all sectors of tourism,
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and 1970s. He conceived leisure as
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liberalisation see international av
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lifestyle The concept of lifestyle
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nity, location, place or area. The
Page 396 and 397:
een the formalisation of the concep
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ludic The ludic aspects of tourism
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The new Kuala Lumpur International
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culture, geography, fantasy and oth
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and procedures, project design and
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Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl
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segmentation'. It considers consume
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the producer±consumer relationship
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tions, mostly funded by governments
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concerns the location of an attract
Page 416 and 417:
determinants of brand choice, situa
Page 418 and 419:
promotion tends to be dominated by
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independent meeting planners, perfo
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evenues are added, total tourism re
Page 424 and 425:
eligious marker, are fewer in numbe
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motivation According to the sociolo
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ut nonetheless highly germane facto
Page 430 and 431:
several days or weeks. Another purp
Page 432 and 433:
in order to determine the total eco
Page 434 and 435:
fold worldwide, and they have becom
Page 436 and 437:
prehistorical �the river from whi
Page 438 and 439:
guides in Singapore', Journal of Cu
Page 440 and 441:
National parks and other protected
Page 442 and 443:
shop postcards consisting of photog
Page 444 and 445:
litan areas are of this kind, and i
Page 446 and 447:
een trained it is ready for use in
Page 448 and 449:
any formal association that is neit
Page 450 and 451:
occupancy rate A tourism business o
Page 452 and 453:
The proper fit of these elements is
Page 454 and 455:
esources because the viability of t
Page 456 and 457:
Pacific Asia Travel Association The
Page 458 and 459:
two weeks of paid holiday. The 1938
Page 460 and 461:
alised than conventional forms such
Page 462 and 463:
Local tourism authorities, boards a
Page 464 and 465:
perception see advertising; anticip
Page 466 and 467:
programme, towards meeting stated g
Page 468 and 469:
Further reading Assael, H. �1993)
Page 470 and 471:
of an integrated national developme
Page 472 and 473:
significance contains historic and/
Page 474 and 475:
portation and support networks, is
Page 476 and 477:
the attainment of specific goals
Page 478 and 479:
still a larger volume of internatio
Page 480 and 481:
overall structure of the argument o
Page 482 and 483:
sophistication of international tou
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eferendum on a hotel tax, azoning m
Page 486 and 487:
accommodation may be unavailable, o
Page 488 and 489:
thirteenth century, and was well kn
Page 490 and 491:
address to which it has been sent,
Page 492 and 493:
and environmental information at th
Page 494 and 495:
principal components analysis Princ
Page 496 and 497:
overall experience consisting of fi
Page 498 and 499:
productivity in respect of one inpu
Page 500 and 501:
occur in the related independent va
Page 502 and 503:
elieved that place management is a
Page 504 and 505:
mainly for non-leisure purposes, of
Page 506 and 507:
and economists. The strong hypothet
Page 508 and 509:
input into such decisions and it ha
Page 510 and 511:
purpose Purpose of tourism normally
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hand, this situation demands that t
Page 514 and 515:
quality of the environment. In the
Page 516 and 517:
schedule business meetings without
Page 518 and 519:
equated with the `vision quest' its
Page 520 and 521:
adio Radio is an underrated medium
Page 522 and 523:
these terms emphasise a human and a
Page 524 and 525:
ecreation centre Within a resort, a
Page 526 and 527:
ecreational geography see geography
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within a state, province or territo
Page 530 and 531:
elics Relics are objects venerated
Page 532 and 533:
esponsibility' of the participants,
Page 534 and 535:
a limited period of time. Rented fa
Page 536 and 537:
esort A definition of resorts shoul
Page 538 and 539:
1930s, but not until the 1970s did
Page 540 and 541:
society �see postmodernism) that
Page 542 and 543:
hetoric In the late twentieth centu
Page 544 and 545:
of the transition rite, the stage w
Page 546 and 547:
A role can be defined by the rules
Page 548 and 549:
Abandoned buildings in declining vi
Page 550 and 551:
sacred journey In common usage `sac
Page 552 and 553:
each point; �4) establish procedu
Page 554 and 555:
scenic drive A scenic drive is a ro
Page 556 and 557:
feature of the elite of many countr
Page 558 and 559:
Tourism, Crime and International Se
Page 560 and 561:
the human subject. The global syste
Page 562 and 563:
tourism represents over 10 per cent
Page 564 and 565:
etween tourism and prostitution are
Page 566 and 567:
shrine A shrine is an object or pla
Page 568 and 569:
Hawkes, T. �1977) Structuralism a
Page 570 and 571:
sites, biblical Biblical sites are
Page 572 and 573:
elationships to family members �i
Page 574 and 575:
social recreation Leisure activitie
Page 576 and 577:
provider behaviours that establish
Page 578 and 579:
destination, their quest is frustra
Page 580 and 581:
Watson, G.L. and Kopachevsky, J.P.
Page 582 and 583:
a religious meaning, and are thus u
Page 584 and 585:
market share and facing severe prob
Page 586 and 587:
sector, including creation of media
Page 588 and 589:
purpose. Eventually, the picturesqu
Page 590 and 591:
quantitatively. The mean, median an
Page 592 and 593:
another climate. Nevertheless, they
Page 594 and 595:
oader macroenvironment �demograph
Page 596 and 597:
tourism studies owes most to the wr
Page 598 and 599:
many tourism businesses may be bett
Page 600 and 601:
Further reading Chadwick, R.A. �1
Page 602 and 603:
have succeeded in improving the int
Page 604 and 605:
ings. An element is a component whi
Page 606 and 607:
property, while indirect taxes are
Page 608 and 609:
While it provides the means to crea
Page 610 and 611:
to France, but its economic conditi
Page 612 and 613:
and carnivals. The contribution of
Page 614 and 615:
ecord of a person's use of time. Th
Page 616 and 617:
operator or other supplier, usually
Page 618 and 619:
in marketing products and to guaran
Page 620 and 621:
fragmentation and the spatial separ
Page 622 and 623:
tourism system The concept of a tou
Page 624 and 625:
central elements are sights, sites,
Page 626 and 627:
scientific and the unashamedly roma
Page 628 and 629:
involves a series of transactions.
Page 630 and 631:
type of road. With off-road vehicle
Page 632 and 633:
carriers in particular markets. Mos
Page 634 and 635:
others by those who claim superior
Page 636 and 637:
the production of guidebooks for me
Page 638 and 639:
Further reading Edgell, D.L. �199
Page 640 and 641:
y establishing successful hotel/res
Page 642 and 643:
1988). Graburn �1983) differentia
Page 644 and 645:
tion) might be international in sco
Page 646 and 647:
ecognition of the severe impact of
Page 648 and 649:
ing immigrants to the United States
Page 650 and 651:
The combination of sustainable deve
Page 652 and 653:
vacationscape The term `vacationsca
Page 654 and 655:
present somewhere remotely, rather
Page 656 and 657:
References Andregnette, P. �1995)
Page 658 and 659:
In war-torn areas, mere prospects f
Page 660 and 661:
1980s. At an earlier time, the Fren
Page 662 and 663:
World Tourism Organization The Worl
Page 664 and 665:
ÐÐ �1996) Educating the Educato
Page 666 and 667:
yield management The concept of max
Page 668 and 669:
zoning Zoning, as it is popularly c
Page 670 and 671:
638 Index achievement 7±8 acquisit
Page 672 and 673:
640 Index asset management 32 cash
Page 674 and 675:
642 Index British Hospitality Assoc
Page 676 and 677:
644 Index environmental 86±7 see a
Page 678 and 679:
646 Index craft see handicrafts Cra
Page 680 and 681:
648 Index research 217 design of or
Page 682 and 683:
650 Index role of tourism 250, 452
Page 684 and 685:
652 Index environmental valuation 2
Page 686 and 687:
654 Index and currency smuggling 53
Page 688 and 689:
656 Index Havana Convention �on i
Page 690 and 691:
658 Index marketing 376 metaphor 38
Page 692 and 693:
660 Index inventory 5, 329 and entr
Page 694 and 695:
662 Index paid holidays 281, 425 Ru
Page 696 and 697:
664 Index market research see marke
Page 698 and 699:
666 Index Montreux �Switzerland)
Page 700 and 701:
668 Index Okechuku, C. 119 Okrant,
Page 702 and 703:
670 Index Germany 253 Greece 262 Hu
Page 704 and 705:
672 Index ratio analysis 112, 487±
Page 706 and 707:
674 Index restaurant 507±8 classif
Page 708 and 709:
676 Index 157, 253±4, 277, 329±30
Page 710 and 711:
678 Index and conservation 103 and
Page 712 and 713:
680 Index Asia Pacific Tourism Asso
Page 714 and 715:
682 Index vision quest 484±5 Visio
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