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eserved for national or regional tourism organisations,
and is more commonly used outside of North
America. Their main roles encompass policy
making and administration, marketing and
promotion, industry facilitation, and other related
services. There is a current trend towards the
reorganisation and the funding of tourism boards
as public±private authorities.
borders
DONALD ANDERSON, CANADA
Borders, or boundaries, mark the territorial limits
up to which a political entity can exercise its
sovereign authority. Various scales of border exist
and they can be divided into international and
subnational. International boundaries separate
countries, or nations, while sub-national boundaries
divide lower level civil divisions such as
provinces, states and counties. Sub-national boundaries
often have significant implications for tourism,
especially in terms of planning, promotion
and taxation. International boundaries, however,
influence tourism in more noticeable ways. Flows
of tourists, their choice of destinations, planning
and the physical development of tourism are all
affected by the nature of international boundaries.
Borders influence tourism in at least four ways:
they act as barriers, they determine the form and
function of destinations in their vicinity, they
function as destinations and they are zones of
transit. Borders as barriers can be viewed from
two perspectives: perceived and real. For some
tourists, having to cross a border may add a
perceived distance owing to formalities or cultural
differences on each side. Many borders are
physically impermeable or highly restricted, which
creates a real barrier.
The spatial development of destinations is often
influenced by proximity to international frontiers.
The most common pattern in frontier areas is for
tourism facilities to be located adjacent to border
crossing points or within easy walking distance.
Furthermore, some borderlands are important
destinations when they include popular attractions
as Niagara Falls, Victoria Falls and the International
Peace Garden. Other border-related attrac-
tions include the border markers themselves,
shopping, gambling and prostitution. Crossborder
shopping is popular in frontier areas where
taxes and prices are lower and when a different
variety of goods is available across the border.
Gambling and prostitution tend to develop in
border areas where such activities of vice are not
permitted in neighbouring countries or provinces.
Borders are also viewed by many tourists merely as
transit zones, not as destinations, because this is the
point where they cross from one political entity into
another. Welcome signs, information centres and
government buildings are the dominant tourism
features of the transit landscape.
Further reading
Timothy, D.J. �1995) `International boundaries:
new frontiers for tourism research', Progress in
Tourism and Hospitality Research 1�2): 141±52.
ÐÐ �1995) `Political boundaries and tourism:
borders as tourist attractions', Tourism Management
16�7): 525±32.
Timothy, D.J. and R.W. Butler �1995) `Crossborder
shopping: a North American perspective',
Annals of Tourism Research 22�1): 16±34.
branding
branding 55
DALLEN J. TIMOTHY, USA
A brand is the name, symbol, term, design or any
combination of these used to differentiate products
or services from those of competitors. It is
possible to give brand names to individual products
or to a complete product line. Branding is the
process by which the company decides what brands
it should offer. Some, like Hoover and Xerox, have
become so popular that they started to be used as
generic terms for the product itself �vacuum cleaner
and photocopier, respectively). By branding the
products or services, companies are able to
differentiate them so they can be brought to the
attention of buyers.
A brand is seen as a guarantee of consistent
quality and can be used to attract loyal customers.
In fact, the value of a brand is based on its
perception in the customer's mind. By differentiat