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290 human resource development
or tour guide has the capability to undertake
tasks associated with the job with little modification
throughout their career. This mediaeval apprenticeship
model of training has little relevance to the
demands of contemporary tourism employment
where the role of HRD is to equip staff for constant
change in the workplace, supporting the concept of
`lifelong learning' for all those active within the
economy.
It is difficult to generalise about principles of
HRD in the context of the international tourism
sector. The limitations are imposed as a consequence
of a number of factors which include the
supply-side diversity within the various sectors of
tourism which necessitate differing technical and
service skills. Supply-side operations across the
transportation, accommodation, food service,
attractions and other sectors have limited
skills requirements in common, beyond generic
customer handling, communications, finance and
related areas. The context in which HRD takes
place in these sectors also varies to a considerable
degree. A further factor is diversity in business
structure, size and ownership, varying from the
micro family operation to the mega multinational
firm.
Tourism, as an industry, remains dominated in
most countries by small family-run businesses
within which the capacity to effectively deliver
HRD is often limited. While the focus in these
operations tends towards the informal, such
investment may be insufficient in a rapidly
changing business environment and a volatile
labour market. Limitations to generalisation are
also the result of different traditions and philosophies
of education and training between countries
and regions. Tourism is generally `locked into' the
structures and philosophies of public sector education
and training settings in which it operates.
These approaches may not be fully sensitive to the
vocational HRD needs of tourism. In a few
countries, the private sector, in partnership with
public institutions, has been able to participate in
HRD programmes.
Finally, the varying levels and forms of public
sector support for HRD within the tourism sector
also cause diversity. This action has generally been
justified on the grounds of the fragmented and
diverse nature of supply-side business. In particular,
the need to ensure minimum operating and service
standards throughout a destination's supply chain is
at the centre of justification for financial and
practical measures in support of tourism HRD.
Examples of how the public sector provides
incentives to companies to invest in HRD include
payroll levy schemes �Malaysia and Singapore),
subsidised training provision �Ireland and Scotland)
and tax exemption �a widely employed mechanism).
In some respects, tourism as a sector exhibits
features of immaturity when compared to other
industrial sectors in terms of its HRD policies and
practices. This may be a consequence of the
environmental considerations discussed here. It is
also a reflection of wider weaknesses which exist in
relation to the image which tourism, as an industry,
has for sustained employment. Investment in HRD
is constrained by labour market challenges which
parts of the sector face, including high labour
turnover, inability to recruit top quality entrants at
all levels, and a poor career image. The issues
facing HRD in tourism are further compounded by
a lack of planning at a macro level. This means
that there are few established links at a strategic
policy level between the tourism sector, its
development, and the provision of HRD in schools,
colleges and universities. HRD has the potential to
play an important role in the sustainable
development of tourism, but unfortunately this
role is widely neglected.
See also: manpower development
Further reading
Baum, T. �1995) Human Resource Management in the
European Tourism arid Hospitality Industry, London:
Chapman and Hall. �Addresses the social and
historical context of HRD in tourism.)
Esichaikul, R. and Baum, T. �1998) `The case for
government involvement in human resource
development: A study of the Thai hotel
industry', Tourism Management 19�4): 359±70.
�Considers the role of public sector agencies in
supporting HRD in tourism enterprises.)
TOM BAUM, UK