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xenophobia
Xenophobia is an irrational fear or contempt of
strangers or foreigners. This ancient cultural and
political phenomenon is also present in contemporary
tourism, mainly manifesting itself in the
hostile attitudes of residents towards tourists.
Tourism research has not shown a specific interest
in this problem, except in a broader context.
Sociological studies on the stranger were an
important starting point. The tourist can in fact
be considered ± like the stranger ± in transit in a
foreign community. The strangerhood perspective
was developed to emphasise the cultural distance
between the stranger and the integrated community.
Xenophobia in tourism can thus be studied by
the social sciences from different viewpoints,
focusing on aspects such as interpersonal relationships
�psychosociological or anthropological host±
guest relationships); intercultural communication
with stress on groups; and socioeconomic forms of
neocolonialism or imperialism. Xenophobia
should in any case be considered in domestic and
international tourism in terms of economic, social
and cultural distance, which is accentuated by the
type and number of tourists and the rate of tourism
development. The demonstration effect,
stereotyping, social impacts and sociocultural
change are all related concepts �see also change,
sociocultural).
Attempts have been made to measure residents'
attitudes through an irritation index within the
framework of the resort cycle. Xenophobia can
occur when the carrying capacity is exceeded
and the tourist is seen as responsible for all the evils
caused by social change. At the beginning of the
1970s, displays of xenophobia were not unusual,
ranging from graffiti telling tourists to go home to
assaults on foreign cars, hotels and other tourism
settlements. The outbursts of xenophobia took
place especially where economic, social and
cultural differences between the host and guest
populations were at their greatest.
Generally speaking, over the last two decades
tourism has been increasingly considered as an
unavoidable component of a world process of
globalisation, and even interpreted as a vital
force for peace and understanding. There have
also been efforts through policy, impact assessments
and other measures to mitigate the
negative consequences of tourism on host societies.
Several case studies on the attitudes of residents
suggest that the economic benefits of tourism
outweigh its social costs. On the other hand, new
forms of terrorist xenophobia �see terrorism)
specifically aimed at tourists are appearing in
different parts of the world.
Further reading
Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. �1982) Tourism:
Economic, Physical and Social Impacts, London:
Longman. �Provides some important insights in
Chapter 5, dealing with social impacts of
tourism.)
GIULI LIEBMAN PARRINELLO, ITALY