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power to the community, a concept that has met
firm resistance in several member countries.
Currently, many international airlines experience
considerable freedom in serving markets and
setting prices. The term open skies is widely used
to describe these newfound freedoms. In addition,
numerous strategic alliances have been formed in
which airlines from several countries link their
routes and services together. More and more Asian
and Latin American airlines are also becoming
partners in these strategic alliances �see globalisation).
Further reading
Balfour, J. �1994) `The changing role of regulation
in European air transport liberalisation', Journal
of Air Transport Management 1�1): 27±36. �Examines
the reasons and pressures for liberalisation in
Europe and how a gradual process may work
best.)
Doganis, R. �1991) Flying Off Course, 2nd edn,
London: HarperCollins. �Provides an overview
of the economics of international airlines.)
Kinnock, N. �1996) `The liberalisation of the
European aviation industry', European Business
Journal 8�4): 8±13. �Reviews the progress of
European Union/airline liberalisation.)
Ott, J. and Neidl, R.E. �1995) Airline Odyssey, New
York: McGraw-Hill. �Offers an analysis of the
changing airline industry.)
US General Accounting Office �1993) International
Aviation, GAO/RCED-93±64, Washington, DC.
�An analysis of the ability of US airlines to
compete in Europe.)
Williams, G. �1993) The Airline Industry and the Impact
of Deregulation, Aldershot: Ashgate. �Reviews
deregulation in the United States, Canada and
Australia and liberalisation in Europe.)
international aviation
organisations
DAVID B. VELLENGA, USA
WILLEM J. HOMAN, USA
The Chicago Conference of 1944 reached agreement
on establishing a regulatory regime to
manage international aviation with three main
components which continue today: the International
Civil Aviation Organisation �ICAO),
the International Air Transport Association
�IATA) and air service agreements �ASAs). ASAs
are international bilateral agreements negotiated
between governments which allow designated
airlines of the two parties access to each nation's
air space under the international aviation
rights or `Freedoms of the Air'. There are several
thousand ASAs registered with ICAO. While each
of these components operates separately, it is
necessary to harmonise some of their work to
regulate aviation activities effectively.
See also: deregulation, airline; Bermuda 1
Further reading
international aviation rights 319
Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics
�1994) International Aviation:Trends and
Issues, Canberra: Australian Government Publishing
Service.
International Civil Aviation Organisation �1980)
Convention on International Civil Aviation, 6th edn,
Montreal: ICAO Doc 9470.
Sochor, E. �1991) The Politics of International Aviation,
London: Macmillan.
TREVOR SOFIELD, AUSTRALIA
international aviation rights
The `Freedoms of the Air' define the rights of
commercial airlines to operate on specified routes.
The first five freedoms were formally defined at an
international aviation conference in Chicago in
1944, while the last three were enumerated at
other times. Any of these freedoms are available
only to commercial airlines once the nations
involved have agreed to those rights in the
applicable international aviation bilaterals.
The Technical Freedoms includes the right of a
commercial airline to overfly the territory of
another country; often called the `right of
innocent passage' �the first freedom) and the right
of a commercial airline to land in another country
for the purposes of refuelling, aircraft repair, or an
emergency �the second freedom). The Commer