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Science, University of Colorado. �Explores the
perspective and behaviour of tourism executives
on hazards and suggests that the potential for a
major disaster involving tourists is growing.)
ÐÐ �1995) `Disaster planning and response by
tourist business executives,' Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly 36: 86±96.
�Argues that tourism executives resist planning
for potential emergencies and are ill-prepared
for a major disaster.)
employment
WILLIAML.WAUGH,USA
Employment in tourism may be defined in supply
terms according to the sectors which service tourist
needs and the expenditure they incur. The
industry is a range of sectors or businesses which
receive revenues from tourists in varying degrees;
hence, jobs may be only partially dependent on or
supported by these revenues. Standard Industrial
Classifications �SICs) operated by governments
very rarely list all the sectors, and measurement
of employment in tourism is difficult to undertake;
no Standard Industrial Classification of this
industry or tourism employment exists.
From the demand side perspective, employment
is related to tourism expenditures in total, per
day and per unit, and is supported by transactions
which lead to direct, indirect and induced activities
�see multiplier effect). A comparison of direct
employment created in each sector with resulting
total employment in all other industries leads to a
construction of ratios and backward supply
linkages to be identified. Input±output analysis
helps to identify the precise nature of inter-industry
and tourism linkages and the employment generation
which results.
Perspectives on tourism employment from an
industry position focus on sector, level of skills, task
and specialism or function �such as hotels, unit
manager or food and beverage). With the
introduction of national vocational qualifications
in countries such as the United Kingdom,
Canada and Australia, the levels of task and
the competence or the ability to do these tasks have
been revalued. National qualifications, or what
were called trade standards, have been developed
and these have been investigated by the vocational
training agency of the European Union. Professional
profiles, occupations, career paths and jobs
have been outlined and the education and
training required in order to fulfil the tasks involved
have been outlined. Recent innovations in the
workplace have been the development of multiskills,
teamwork and the empowerment of employees.
The delayering of some levels of employees
particularly in the management field have led to
a less tiered or hierarchical structure.
In most economies, tourism employment operates
in a market environment and there is
competition for labour with other sectors. Pressures
on labour supply arise from demographic changes
�see demography) such as declining birth rates
and negative images of working in the service
sector, such as the disadvantages of unsocial hours
in tourism work. In more advanced economies,
problems of labour retention and recruitment plus
rising labour costs has led to the reduction of
labour needs through the use of new technology
and standardisation of the product and service
offered. Tourism still includes labour-intensive
sectors, and in developing economies it creates
valuable employment opportunities for lower skill
workers; however, the seasonal nature of tourism
�see seasonality) and the migration of workers
to tourism locations are still cited as negatives.
employment law
employment law 189
JOHN WESTLAKE, UK
Employment could be defined as the act of hiring,
implying a request and a contract for compensation.
It does not necessarily import an engagement
or rendering services for another. A person may as
well be `employed' about his own business as in the
transaction of the same for a principal �Black's Law
Dictionary, 4th edition, p. 618). An employer is one
who employs the services of another; one for whom
employees work and who pays their wages or
salaries. While such notions are almost universal,
legal systems prevailing in various countries differ
in details according to the politico-economic
system prevailing, the legislative policy and the