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514 rules
For some grids, individual route segments cross
over one another without using the same airports
or terminals.
Hub-and-spoke routing systems are those that
have one or more main airports with a number of
smaller ones connected to the hub via `spokes' like
in a wheel. Service on the `spokes' is often provided
by smaller aircraft, either jet or turbo-prop. Often,
a regional airline offers service on the `spokes' and
has a partnership or code sharing agreement
with a major airline. Where a route system has
more than one hub, service between them typically
consists of frequent, high-capacity jet service.
The main reason why a carrier might use some
form of linear system is the simplicity of the route
network, but often with increased expenses and
limitations on revenue due to the limited network.
With a hub-and-spoke system, a carrier gains
efficiency through centralisation of many functions.
Perhaps the biggest gain, however, is the
potential increase in market power at the hub
airport. As open skies �or equivalent) and deregulation
spread, transportation managers will find
routing decisions even more critical to carrier
success.
Further reading
Bania, N., Bauer, P.W. and Zlatoper, T.J. �1998)
`U.S. air passenger service: a taxonomy of route
networks, hub locations, and competition',
Logistics and Transportation Review 34�1): 53±74.
�Examines the evolution of airline route networks
after deregulation in 1978.)
Hanlon, P. �1996) Global Airlines:Competition in a
Transnational Industry, Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann. �Chapter 4 provides an in-depth
discussion of airline route networks and the next
chapter focuses on hub-and-spoke operations.)
rules
FREDRICK M. COLLISON, USA
Rules are shared beliefs which dictate which
behaviour is permitted, not permitted or may
be required in some situation. Rules are generated
in social situations in order to coordinate the
behaviour of interactors so that goals can be
attained and needs satisfied. All this relates to
various sociocultural studies in tourism, especially
host and guest relationships.
rural recreation
Y.J. EDWARD KIM, AUSTRALIA
The term rural recreation refers to recreation that
takes place in a rural environment rather than an
urban setting �see urban recreation; urban
tourism). Participants are either rural residents
themselves, day visitors from urban areas, or
tourists staying in rural areas �see rural tourism).
The major activities are any form of outdoor
recreation, such as hiking and biking, sightseeing,
water-based activities, nature appreciation
and visiting heritage sites.
rural tourism
MARTIN OPPERMANN, AUSTRALIA
Rural tourism uses the countryside as a resource.
It is associated with the search by urban dwellers
for tranquillity and space for outdoor recreation
rather than being specifically linked to nature.
Rural tourism includes visits to national and state
parks, heritage tourism in rural areas, scenic
drives and enjoyment of the rural landscape,
and farm tourism.
In general, the most attractive rural areas for
tourists are those which are marginal for agriculture,
often located in thinly populated, isolated and
less-favoured upland regions. It has long been
popular in northern Europe, and is now spreading
to Eastern and Central Europe. It is often found in
mountainous areas such as the Pyrennees or the
Rockies, where it was originally associated with
winter sports but now is a year-round activity �see
also sports tourism). Tourism offers an additional
source of income, especially for women, and
is important in reducing the rate of rural
depopulation. Tourism investment may preserve
historic buildings, and traditional activities such as
village festivals may be brought back to life by
tourist interest.