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92 communication mix
may even result in the invention of new cultural
expressions which enhance pride of identity and
soon become accepted as `traditional'.
This is particularly true of music and dance
forms, which have been revived and intensified in
the wake of the world's recent interest in all forms
of ethnic music, as shown in cultural tourism
and ethnic tourism. Performers may have larger
and more appreciative audiences than dwindling
local populations. New outlets such as the ability to
make and to sell recordings, the adaptation of new
instruments and technology and even the chance
for formerly marginalised musicians to tour, have
strengthened as well as transformed many local
folk and ethnic traditions. Further, in music and
dance the performance itself is likely to engender
feelings of authenticity in the performers regardless
of whether the audience paid or who they are.
A number of collections of case studies have
appeared which examine the influence of tourism
on the production, distribution and consumption of
the arts and material culture are under heavy
influence in the last few decades �Appadurai 1986;
Cohen 1993; Graburn 1976; Jules-Rosette 1984). A
tremendous range of outcomes characterise the
differential effects of commoditisation: extinction,
replications, miniaturisation, gigantism, simplification,
exotification, loss of functionalism, modified
or new motifs, syncretism and changes in methods
of manufacturing and materials. In addition, the
audiences may be locals, tourists or both. Regardless
of the changes, if the commercial forms are
appreciated and demanded, the performers and
artists will feel rewarded and stimulated. However,
if creativity is not rewarded and only repetitive
and/or cheap productions are bought, the creators
will get bored or discouraged.
In these times of increasing appreciation of local
and ethnic productions, when performances and
art objects can reach global audiences, the
commoditised output of those under the tourist
gaze may in fact enhance self-esteem. This is
especially so when these arts are upheld as
representative of the best that the national society
has to offer. The commodisation of cultural forms
for tourism is probably a more enlightened and
profitable avenue than employment as a menial
labour force in the service of the institutions of
the industry.
References
Appadurai, A. �ed.) �1986) The Social Life of Things,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. �Includes
studies of the production, exchange,
commodity status, cross-cultural dissemination
and consumption of material culture.)
Cohen, E. �1988) Àuthenticity and commoditization
in tourism', Annals of Tourism Research 15�2):
371±86. �Shows that authenticity is negotiable
and that commoditisation does not destroy
authenticity.)
ÐÐ �ed.) �1993) `Tourist arts', special issue of
Annals of Tourism Research 20�1). �Analyses commoditisation
of history and heritage, colonial
and post-colonial folk arts and souvenirs.)
Graburn, N.H.H. �ed.) �1976) Ethnic and Tourist Arts:
Cultural Expressions from the Fourth World, Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press. �Case studies
of the stimulation, production, trade and consumption
of the arts and crafts of native and
minority peoples around the world.)
Greenwood, D.J. �1989) `Culture by the pound', in
V. Smith �ed.), Hosts and Guests:The Anthropology of
Tourism, 2nd edn, Philadelphia, PA: University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Jules-Rosette, B. �1984) The Messages of Tourist Art:
An African Semiotic System in Comparative Perspective,
New York.
communication mix
NELSON H.H. GRABURN, USA
The communication mix is the combination of
advertising, personal selling, public relations
and sales promotions used within the same
campaign. Most tourism marketing programmes
include the use of such communication mixes
because different ingredients in the mix help best in
achieving related, but somewhat unique, objectives
of the marketing programme. Thus, a communication
mix for a given destination, Disney
World, for example, may include television and
radio commercials, newspaper and magazine ads,
free brochures mailed to inquirers exposed to
advertising offers of the free brochure, publicity in
the form of news stories about family outings at
Disney World. The central premise for designing a