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548 souvenir, religious
metonym signifying the Holy Land for Christians,
while a miniature representative of the Church of
the Holy Sepulchre is a metaphoric symbol for it.
Souvenirs are seen as one expression of the tourist's
quest for the `authentic' �see authenticity). If so,
such a quest is more immediately satisfied by
metonymic souvenirs �the Jordan water is `real'
water from the river) than by metaphoric ones,
though the latter may be symbolically significant,
even if they are not `authentic'.
The meaning of souvenirs may be wholly
individual, or shared by a collectivity. Mementoes
are normally only individual, but so too are some
commercial souvenirs: a standard object, such as a
sun hat, may become a souvenir of a personal
experience, for example as a reminder of a
particularly hot trek in the tropics. A cross acquired
on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem has an additional
shared collective meaning, as a symbol of the
pilgrim's Christian identity.
There are some important differences between
the kinds of souvenirs acquired by different types of
tourists. Authenticity-seeking tourists will tend to
acquire `real', often exotic, artefacts as reminders of
their encounter with the `other' or with the
`extraordinary'. Less authenticity-prone tourists
will acquire artefacts which are less strange, so
they can be displayed or used in everyday life. For
example, instead of a used native costume, tourists
may purchase a pillow cover with `typical' native
designs, but in colours fitting their living room.
Tourists enjoying the playful reversal of everyday
life on their trip may acquire funny, childish or
`tacky' artefacts, such as loud T-shirts or risqueÂ
postcards, expressing the un-serious, ludic nature of
their vacation �Gordon 1986).
While souvenirs have a personal significance for
individuals, the emergence of mass tourism
encouraged the mass production of souvenirs.
Three modes of such production can be distinguished:
industrial �such as T-shirts, key rings, bags,
postcards, miniaturised attractions and similar
inexpensive, machine-made products), crafts �moderately
priced pottery, embroideries and carvings
produced in forms, designs, decorations or colours
`typical' of local styles, or depicting typical local
scenes, customs, occupations or people), and arts
�relatively expensive, unique works by reputable
local painters or sculptors, representing local
motifs).
It should be stressed that none of these modes of
production serves exclusively as souvenirs. The
industrially produced objects may be acquired for
the tourist's own use or for presents; crafts may be
bought purely for their attractiveness or as
collectors' items, particularly when they are
exported and reach international markets, where
their purchase is unrelated to any personal
experiences of the customers. While works of art
may principally be acquired for their aesthetic
value and rarely serve as `mere' souvenirs, in many
destinations, some artists are explicitly oriented to
the souvenir market, producing large numbers of
works in a similar style on which the same scenes
are frequently repeated. In such instances, the
borderline between `tourist crafts' and `art' is
practically obliterated. Research on souvenirs has
focused mainly on their origins and development in
relationship to the local culture. Some studies exist
which inquire into their mode of production and
marketing. However, the study of their significance
for the ultimate consumers is still at an early
stage.
References
Gordon, B. �1986) `The souvenir: messenger of the
extraordinary', Journal of Popular Culture 20�3):
135±146.
Further reading
Cohen, E. �ed.) `Tourist Arts', special issue of Annals
of Tourism Research 20�1). �Of particular importance
are two articles: S. Littrell, `What makes a
craft souvenir authentic?', and Shenhav-Keller,
`The Israeli souvenir'.)
souvenir, religious
ERIK COHEN, ISRAEL
The term religious souvenirs refers to a group of
objects which are, by their content or shape,
reminiscent of religious teaching, figures or sites.
There is an enormous number of objects that have