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vacationscape
The term `vacationscape' was coined by Gunn
�1988) to describe the art and practice of integrated
design and development for tourism. He
emphasises structural, physical and cultural/
aesthetic functionalism as broad guiding principles
underpinning vacationscape. The creation of
satisfying environments for tourism calls for greater
awareness and integration of planning and design
fundamentals.
Further reading
Gunn, C. �1988) Vacationscape, New York: Von
Nostrand Reinhold.
JOHN J. PIGRAM, AUSTRALIA
valuation see contingent valuation;
environmental valuation
value added
Value added is the difference between the value of
the outputs of a business and the value of its
purchased inputs �materials and services). It is in
principle a measure of the value added by any
business, including tourism, to its inputs in
transforming them into outputs. For this purpose,
outputs are normally measured at selling prices and
inputs at purchase prices.
See also: tax
values
SIMON ARCHER, UK
Values are a set of strongly held beliefs according to
which people organise their behavior. They are
abstract, learned concepts induced by family,
cultural, societal and peer experiences, stabilising
during adulthood. Values function as rules or as a set
of general strategies that help form and guide
attitudes, expectations and behaviour. They can be
means, or ends in themselves impacting on tourism
decision-making processes and preferences.
Values are often used synonymously with needs
and motives. All are closely related as they are
organising antecedents of behaviour. Whereas needs
and motives are generic terms, values indicate an
evaluation of behaviour, persons and/or situations
�objects). While values can be biogenic, �including
the need for food or shelter), they can also be based
on psychogenic needs. `Self-actualisation', for example,
is the process of lifting the real self to the level
of the ideal one. Thus people travel for a combination
of escape and search needs �Iso-Ahola 1990).
Escape refers to perceived obstacles to one's wellbeing.
Search expresses itself in either a tourist's
desire for challenges leading to self-fulfillment, or in
the search for acknowledgement leading to selfcompletion,
healing, or recreation. As such, these
needs are abstract. The actual satisfaction of them is
practical and learnt through behaviour �including
trial and error). Tourists thus learn how to travel and
satisfy their needs over time �such as choice of
destinations and activities).
The transformation of tourism experiences into
adaptable, learned behaviour can be interpreted as
being guided by a person's �a group's or a society's)
values. It involves the abstraction of information
from previously encountered, similar objects. From
an information processing view, experiences generating
values and attitudes are learned and
stratified clusters of representations. These are the
basis for conceptual learning and, when related to
each other, form the basis for rule-acquisitions. In
turn, their use in problem-solving tasks generates
cognitive strategies that constitute learned behaviour
and become independent of the actual
contents of codes and symbols. In other words, rules
are abstracted from specific situations. Destination
choice and touristic activities are an expression of
learned values perceived �believed) to lead to
satisfactory outcomes. In terms of adaptation theory,
values are learned strategies to either adapt one's
environment or, adapt oneself to a given environment,
to meet one's needs.
See also: culture; tradition
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