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overall structure of the argument of a policy study
will determine its acceptability and attractiveness
to its intended audiences. Within the conceptualisation
of policy as an art, debate is perceived as a
highly positive contribution to the formulation of
appropriate policies as it provides a basis for
selecting from alternative policy directions. Within
such a conceptualisation, policy studies explicitly
acknowledges the role of competing values, interests
and assumptions in the analysis and formulation
of policy and the production of policy
knowledge.
Despite the lack of a dominant approach to
policy studies, policy research can be broadly
described as being based on either prescriptive or
descriptive frameworks of analysis. Prescriptive or
normative models seek to demonstrate how
policy making should occur relative to preestablished
standards and offer a guide to future
policies. Descriptive models document the way in
which the policy process actually does occur. The
majority of tourism policy literature is highly
prescriptive. This may be because of ignorance of
public policy studies and the politics of tourism or it
might reflect a desire not to be perceived at odds
with government and industry sponsors of tourism
education and research. For example, the policy
dimensions of community planning and development,
growth management, destination
management and sustainable tourism have generally
been based on prescriptive models of tourism.
A descriptive approach is preferred when
exploring a new subject in a particular area of
tourism policy. Descriptive �positive) models give
rise to explanations about what happened during
the decision-making and policy-making processes.
They help analysts understand the effects that
choice, power, interests, institutional arrangements,
perception and values have on the nature of the
policy-making process. Descriptive studies indicate
that tourism policies are formulated and implemented
in dynamic environments where there is a
complex pattern of decisions, actions, interaction,
reaction and feedback. The complexity of the
policy process emphasises the importance of
analysing different stages of the policy process
and different levels of analysis. Three levels of
analysis are usually identified: the micro-level of
decision-making within organisations, which sees
organisations as highly dynamic political entities;
the middle range analysis of policy formulation and
implementation �the meso-level), although it is
noted that policy formulation and implementation
are difficult to separate on a consistent basis
because policy is often formulated as it is
implemented and vice versa; and macroanalysis
of political systems including examination of the
role of the state in tourism. It is the interaction
among levels which is particularly significant and
problematic. The relative lack of descriptive policy
studies of tourism at national, regional and local
levels has been a major impediment in developing
effective models of planning and development
strategies which are accepted by the various
stakeholders. In other words, although prescriptive
models are deductive, one cannot deduce in the
absence of prior knowledge.
Several sub-fields of tourism policy studies are
also gradually developing, including the study of
interest �lobby or pressure) groups, policy making
in federal systems, tourism as a government
response to economic restructuring in rural and
urban areas, regional tourism development policies,
urban re-imaging strategies, public±private
partnerships, tourism and cultural policies including
the commoditisation of heritage for tourist
consumption, the hosting of hallmark events, the
values and ideology of participants in policy
making, tourism and environmental policies including
national parks, and policy monitoring
and evaluation. Although policy studies of tourism
have for long received only limited attention by
government, practitioners and academics, the
practical significance of understanding why policies
and plans fail is leading to greater recognition of
the need to understand the policy-making process.
Further reading
policy 447
Edgell, D. �1990) International Tourism Policy, New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. �A prescriptive
approach towards tourism policy.)
Hall, C.M. �1994) Tourism and Politics:Policy, Power
and Place, Chichester: Wiley. �Places international
policy within the wider political context of
tourism.)
Hall, C.M. and Jenkins, J. �1995) Tourism and Public