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and elsewhere, obviously have had direct impacts
in and implications for tourism ± indeed a very
labour intensive global industry. In particular, its
many trade associations have been involved in
dealing with labour relations issues and they
regularly advise their membership on best workforce
and workplace practices. Further, hospitality
and tourism management studies have continuously
contributed to a better understanding of the
subject, both theoretically and practically, leading
to improvement in human relations conditions and
thus increasing productivity in this industry.
land tenure
ROBERT H. WOODS, USA
Land tenure refers to the different notions of
ownership of land. In traditionally oriented
societies, land is often communally held �custodial
rights in perpetuity) by clans or other group units,
based on ancestral occupancy. In contemporary
capitalist society, land is a commodity which can be
bought and sold by individuals. In tourism,
problems may arise when communally held land
becomes the object of speculations or when, for
instance, development in coastal areas restrains
access to local people.
landscape
TREVOR SOFIELD, AUSTRALIA
The combination of the physical and cultural
attributes of an area reflect the interaction of
natural and cultural systems, and together these are
known as landscape. Cultures have shaped their
own landscapes out of the raw materials provided
by the earth, and each landscape reflects the
culture that created it. Much can be learned about
the past and present inhabitants of an area by
observing the landscape which visually chronicles
the most basic strivings of humankind for shelter,
food, clothing and entertainment. Where the mix
is judged to be particularly attractive, the result
may be viewed as scenery, or an amenity landscape,
which may be an important resource
attracting tourists. Landscapes are not fixed but
evolve as the interactions between people and their
environment change over time. While attractive
landscapes are an attribute of many destinations,
the development of tourism results in their
modification. The construction of hotels, motels,
campgrounds, attractions, signage and other tourism
paraphernalia results in changes to the preexisting
landscape. Sometimes the changes are so
profound that it is possible to talk of tourism
landscapes in which tourism dominates the uses of
the land and the appearance of the area.
See also: landscape evaluation; resort
morphology
landscape evaluation
landscape evaluation 347
GEOFFREY WALL, CANADA
Scenery may be viewed as being a natural
resource. In order to determine which landscapes
are of high quality and deserve attention by
planners and managers, numerous attempts have
been made to develop techniques to measure scenic
resources in an objective and quantitative fashion,
and to delimit landscapes with high amenity value.
Three general approaches are in use for this
purpose. The first approach is landscape consensus
studies in which experts strive for a consensus about
the attributes of an area. The second is landscape
description studies which aim to identify and
measure the attributes of specific landscapes or
assess the quality of specific landscapes against some
standard or criteria. These are essentially a form of
resource inventory with the objective of producing
a map which locates the presence and nature
of scenic resources. The third approach is landscape
preference studies which attempt to determine
which aspects of the environment are seen as
attractive or unattractive. This may be done
indirectly, by inferring preferences from evidence
such as literature and art, or directly, by interviewing
individuals about specific landscapes.
While the research on landscape evaluation is
rich empirically, it has a tendency to document the
obvious fact that individuals, at least in Western
countries, enjoy places with water and trees. The
work lacks a strong theoretical base. Appleton
�1975) has attempted to provide this with his