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474 public participation
equity in human well-being. The challenge posed
by the report was to strive for sustainable
development, though this admirable objective
has been clouded somewhat by the ambiguity of
the term `sustainable'. Health is clearly part of the
rhetoric of ecologically sustainable tourism, but is
yet to inform policy and planning adequately.
For tourism development to be environmentally
responsible, and if the use of the term `health'
in tourism research is to embrace a more ecological
and broader approach, it is necessary to consider
biohistory, or the study of human situations in the
history of life on earth. This begins with understanding
biological processes, economical principles
and the sensitivities of biological systems, of
which humans are a part. Many argue that the
future well-being of humanity depends on satisfying
both the health and well-being needs of both
the biosphere's ecosystem and human beings.
People in developed countries �high-energy societies)
are generally well off in terms of life
expectancy, though their quality of life could
arguably improve; whereas those in the developing
world are far worse off. The biosphere is
necessarily of global concern, due to the universal
ecological impact of humans, the combined
effects of an extraordinarily high material standard
of living and a massive increase in world population.
A key question is whether it is possible for
human beings to lead healthy and enjoyable lives in
a society characterised by a steady rate of
resource and energy use. Tourism, unfortunately,
usually encourages high energy usage in
developing as well as developed countries in a
manner that is not sustainable.
Therefore, the conceptual framework for consideration
of health and tourism interactions
should include wellness and illness, promotion
and prevention. It should not be confined only to
reporting on diseases, accidents and health risks
related to tourism. Wellness promotion and illness
prevention considers the broad interactions of
physical, mental, social, economic and environmental
factors, with the policy and planning
frameworks which impact on stresses related to
quality of life. The Brundtland report, in its
broadest senses, is the strategy for sustainable
development which aims to promote harmony
among human beings and between humanity and
nature.
General concepts relevant to health and tourism
include issues of equity and access, in particular
relating to the treatment of illness and injury in
developing countries or remote locations, to
anthropocentric versus biosphere attitudes and
values which underpin approaches to human
health, to individual well-being versus community
health, to specialist versus holistic integrated
human health with environmental/ecosystem
health, and to sociocultural impacts. Tourism
specific concepts include guest versus host wellbeing,
and links between wellness and quality of life
of host community with tourist satisfaction, as
well as issues of safety and risks.
Further reading
Brown, V.A. �ed.) �1989) A Sustainable Healthy Future:
Towards an Ecology of Health, Australia: La Trobe
University and Commission for the Future.
�Proceedings of a World Health Organisation
workshop aiming to set a new agenda for public
health policy.)
Clift, S. and Page, S.J. �eds) �1996) Health and the
International Tourist, London: Routledge. �Deals
with health problems and preventative measures
from the perspective of tourists.)
World Commission on Environment and Development
�1987) Our Common Future, New York:
Oxford University Press. �Discusses global issues
of sustainable development.)
World Health Organisation �updated annually)
International Travel and Health:Vaccination requirements
and health advice, Geneva: WHO. �Prescriptive
information on immunisation requirements,
prophylactic measures and other health advice
for tourists abroad.)
public participation
ROBYN BUSHELL, AUSTRALIA
In democratic societies, it has become increasingly
recognised that individuals should be able to have
input into the decisions that are impingeing upon
them. Public participation is the act of providing