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440 planning, environmental
sector. In contrast, many less-developed countries
have prepared sophisticated tourism plans, often
with the aid of outside experts and finance, as a
means to display a sense of vision and thereby
attract investment in what has often been viewed
as a growth industry.
See also: product planning
References
Getz, D. �1991) Festivals, Special Events, and Tourism,
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. �Discusses
planning and assessment of special events.)
Further reading
Gunn, C.A. �1979) Tourism Planning, New York:
Crane, Russack and Co. �A classic which
discusses attractions, services, facilities, transportation,
information as well as planning processes.)
Heath, E. and Wall, G. �1992) Marketing Tourism
Destinations:A Strategic Planning Approach, New
York: Wiley. �Applies marketing concepts to the
planning of destination areas.)
Inskeep, E. �1991) Tourism Planning:An Integrated and
Sustainable Development Approach, New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
Murphy, P. �1985) Tourism:A Community Approach,
New York and London: Methuen. �A comprehensive
discussion of tourism planning from a
community perspective.)
GEOFFREY WALL, CANADA
planning, environmental
Environmental planning is a generic term covering
a wide range of related activities, from site
planning to national policy making, from the
activities of individuals through non-governmental
organisations to those of United Nations Development
Organisations and the World Bank. Most
successful destinations, for example, depend upon
clean physical surroundings and protected environments,
as well as on their particular social,
economic or cultural attributes. Destinations that
do not protect these are suffering a decline in
quality and tourist use. However, because the
word `planning' has so many popular meanings, it
is necessary to consider in each case what is meant
when environmental planning is discussed.
It is possible to distinguish the planning
endeavour on the basis of environmental policy
development and implementation, differing levels
of specificity related to area-wide planning, particular
types of techniques adopted to control land
use, and/or other community issues with the
environmental one. Each of these has its own
concerns and has spawned differing techniques and
requirements for action since the development of
modern town planning approaches in the wake of
the eighteenth-century European experience with
industrialisation and urbanisation. The recent but
increasing concern with the wider biophysical
impacts of human settlement and development
has led to the explicit use of the word `environmental'
in association with the term planning, but
the pedigree of planning is far older.
Environmental planning provides the basis for
achieving integrated, controlled and sustainable
human activity within the earth's biosphere.
Planning is carried out in accordance with a
systematic process of setting objectives, environmental
survey and analysis �audit), formulation of
a plan with recommendations for the control of
development, and implementation, followed by
continuous management. Planning takes place at
a variety of levels, ranging from the macro national
and regional to the micro destination and site
levels. At the local level, determination and
adoption of facility development and design
standards are essential to ensure that tourism
development is, for example, appropriately sited
and designed with respect to local environmental
conditions and desired character. However, even
though local plans may be prepared independently,
it is essential that they fit into the wider context of
national and regional environmental policy and
plans. The macro level of environmental planning
provides the framework for developing activities at
the community level.
Tourism development policy and physical structure
planning, which indicates major attractions
and activities, sites to be developed or designated
protected areas, major tourism market segments,
gateways, regions or zones, and trans-