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18 alcohol
the hub airport, but expand demand for facilities,
approaches, and take-off and landing slots. Increased
service offerings and lower prices brought
about by deregulation increased demand for travel,
and such demand funnelled through hub airports
worsened airport congestion.
Proposed solutions are as numerous as the
problems. Some countries plan to build new
facilities to deal with causes of congestion and to
realise future opportunities. This strategy requires
vast amounts of land and capital resources which
are not always available. Airports in this position
may only be able to expand existing facilities. Both
of these strategies are especially evident in Asia. For
many hub airports, such as traditional gateway
airports in the United States and Europe, even
modest physical expansion is impossible. In
response, airports generally have developed allocation
mechanisms for take-off and landing slots.
Given the projected growth of air travel into the
next century, these are stopgap measures at best.
Further reading
Doganis, R. �1992) The Airport Business, London:
Routledge. �A basic text on airport management
and operations, especially the overview of
airports in Chapter One and management issues
in Chapter Two.)
Golaszewski, R. �1992) Àviation infrastructure: a
time for perestroika?', Logistics and Transportation
Review 28�1): 75±101. �Examines the provision of
airports and air traffic control in the USA, the
funding of these systems, and potential changes
in governance, pricing, and allocation methods.)
Saunders, L.F. and Shepperd, W.G. �1993) Àirlines:
setting constraints on hub dominance', Logistics
and Transportation Review 29�3): 201±20. �Focuses
on the relationship between hub dominance and
airline pricing and suggests that limiting hub
dominance might improve air system efficiency.)
alcohol
KEVIN BOBERG, USA
Alcohol is a chemical compound consisting of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. It is pro-
duced when a liquid containing sugar is fermented
and/or distilled. Depending on the type of
alcoholic beverage, there are different ingredients
used.
Beer is usually brewed from malted barley,
although corn and rye have been used to make
beer. It is then mixed with yeast and flavoured with
hops. The term `beer' includes lager �a clear, lightbodied,
refreshing beer), ale �fuller-bodied and
more bitter than lager), stout �a dark ale with a
sweet, strong, malt flavour) and pilsner �a term
which means that the beer is made in the style of
the famous beer brewed in Pilsner, Bohemia). The
alcoholic content of beer ranges from 4 per cent to
about 16 per cent by volume.
Wine is made from fermented grape juice, but
other fruits have been used to produce wines.
Wines can be categorised into four main groups.
Still wines can be dry, semi-sweet or sweet, and
may be red, white or roseÂ. Sparkling wines have
added carbon dioxide, making them bubbly.
Champagnes are fermented in the bottle with
champagne yeast. Fortified wines have been
enhanced in flavour and texture by the addition
of brandy or other liquor. Examples include sherry
and port. Aromatic wines are wines flavoured with
herbs or spices �an example is vermouth).
Liquor, also known as spirit, is an alcoholic
beverage made from grains or plants that have
been fermented and later distilled. These beverages
are noticeably higher in alcohol content, averaging
40 per cent, or 80 proof, although some liquors can
have as much as 151 per cent alcohol content. The
most common grains used are corn, rye and barley.
Such beverages made from these ingredients
include Scotch whisky, bourbon, malt liquor and
gin. Other popular beverages are vodka, which is
made from grains; rum, which is made from
fermented sugarcane juice or molasses; cognac,
which is distilled from wine and aged in wood; and
tequila, which is made from the fermented and
distilled sap of the agave plant.
Alcohol has been a part of tourism for centuries,
being enjoyed by some as part of a social setting
where adults can relax and enjoy each other's
company. Tourists frequently partake of local
beverages, and vineyards are now popular
attractions.