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litan areas are of this kind, and in the literature this
has come to be known as a measure of `normative
need'. However, critics have pointed out that in
most instances such `standards' have no basis in
sound research, are simply used for no other reason
than that they have been used before elsewhere, and
should not be taken as a measure of any kind of
`need'. What can be said, however, is that differences
between areas in terms of open space provision �or
some other parameter) can indeed be quantified,
and this can be used as a measure of `comparative
need'. Finally, while `felt needs' �sometimes known as
latent demand) are not easily measurable, `expressed
needs' �in the form of actual recreational
behaviour patterns) certainly are. What is always
called for is careful identification and definition of
the kind of `need' being discussed.
See also: behaviour, recreation; demand,
recreational; participation, recreation
Further reading
Bradshaw, J. �1972) `The concept of social need',
New Society, 30 March: 640±3.
Mercer, D.C. �1973) `The concept of recreational
need', Journal of Leisure Research 5: 37±50.
neo-colonialism
DAVID MERCER, AUSTRALIA
Many international analysts believe that tourism
readily recreates the dependencies of colonialism
�see colonisation) and can become a form of leisure
imperialism or hedonistic neo-colonialism. Such
ideas stand as powerful rhetoric to illustrate the
ties between core and periphery areas, and to
describe the potential loss of control which a
removed/isolated host region/state may face vis-aÁvis
controlling foreign or elite interests.
Nepal
KEITH HOLLINSHEAD, UK
Nepal, a mountain kingdom of 22 million people,
remained isolated until the Chinese invasion of Tibet
Nepal 411
forced Nepal to seal its border with the latter and
encourage stronger ties with India. The result was
the country's first motor road from the Indian border
to the capital, Kathmandu in 1950. The Chinese
invasion also created a massive inflow of Tibetan
refugees who would support themselves by creating
handicrafts for the fledgling tourism industry.
Initially tourists consisted of mountaineers attracted
to the Himalayan peaks, the highest in the
world. Today, trekking is a major tourism form.
The government struggles with how to balance the
fragile mountain environment and the need for
the revenue trekking permits and the resulting
employment generate. Litter, deforestation and
social impacts are getting increased attention.
Budget tourists often attracted by the drugs available
have been largely replaced by luxury tourism built
around trekking, the wildlife parks in southern
Nepal and the rich cultural artefacts of this
predominantly Buddhist society. Temples and antiquities
have inspired massive international interest
in heritage protection. Many art treasures were
smuggled out of Nepal during its early years of
tourism. These losses encouraged the Pacific Asia
Travel Association to make heritage preservation
awards. More recently, the United Nations Development
Programme has assisted in Nepal's tourism
reorganisation and planning.
Tourism became the leading industry in
Nepal in 1983, but it has often suffered from its
dependence on its politically unsettled neighbours
for airline flights and overland links. India has
on occasion stopped flights to Nepal. Nevertheless,
by 1996 Nepal was attracting 404,000
tourists and generating $130 million in tourism
receipts. Recently, the Ministry of Tourism and
Aviation was strengthened by assuming more
policy planning and regulatory roles. A Nepal
Tourism Board, consisting of representatives of
various sectors of the industry and the major
government agencies with which they interact,
was created to further coordination and cooperation
between government and the private sector.
`Visit Nepal Year ± 1998' has been promoted
around the need for ecologically sustainable
tourism. Its website furthers this goal by specific
suggestions for tourists concerning the ecology
and culture of the country.