Untitled

segmentation'. It considers consumer groups with a
markedly different pattern of benefits sought to be
`natural' segments in the market. From a behavioural
science point of view, the notion of `benefit'
relates to the more general concept of attitude.
Benefits desired or expected are attitudes towards
particular consumption goals.
More recent segmentation strategies involve
values and lifestyles. In particular, vacation
style is regarded as a temporary lifestyle into which
a tourist escapes from his/her everyday surroundings.
A vacation style represents a cognitive and
emotional state of mind as well as the accompanying
behaviour. Tourism activities are also useful
raw material for constructing a posteriori segments.
Questions about the tourist's activities are customary
in travel surveys �see also survey, guest).
The concept of tourist roles also suggested for
segmentation purposes is closely linked to tourism
activities which are regarded to come up in
symptomatic combinations. According to the
marketing view of segmentation strategies, it is
not the aim to detect the `true' segment structure in
the market. The analyst and the marketing
manager continuously invent new consumer typologies
and segmentation schemes. Being the first to
practice such a scheme gives a company or a
tourism destination a competitive edge.
See also: segmentation, a priori; segmentation, a
posteriori
Further reading
Hsieh, S., O'Leary, J.T. and Morrison A.M. �1992)
`Segmenting the international travel market by
activity', Tourism Management 13: 209±23.
Kamakura, W.A. and Novak, T.P. �1992) `Valuesystem
segmentation: exploring the meaning of
LOV', Journal of Consumer Research 19: 119±32.
Yiannakis, A. and Gibson, H. �1992) `Roles tourists
play', Annals of Tourism Research 19: 287±303.
markets, contestable
JOSEF A. MAZANEC, AUSTRIA
Markets which appear to be oligopolistic, or even
monopolistic, can be competitive so long as they
are contestable. The mere threat of competition ±
as evidenced by unlimited and costless entry and
exit ± can cause even the apparent monopolist to
behave competitively. The theory has been used to
support a policy of continued airline deregulation,
despite apparently increased levels of industry
concentration.
marketing
marketing 375
KEVIN BOBERG, USA
In 1960 the American Marketing Association
described marketing as the performance of business
activities that direct the flow of goods and
services from producer to consumer. During the
following decades this notion became more
abstract, and evolved from a business function to
the business doctrine of market-oriented management.
Later it became liberated from merely
profit-oriented buyer±seller relationships. The generic
concept of marketing applies to all sorts of
transactions and exchange relationships between a
producer or service provider and a purchaser or
client. Non-profit organisations such as charities,
religious communities, political parties and municipalities
are also looking for members or customers;
they offer or promise some benefit and get
something in return. The fundamental concern of
the marketing effort in all these organisations is to
systematically �according to well-defined objectives
and a marketing plan) influence other individuals'
and groups' behaviour. The members of a target
group �see target marketing) may fulfil any role
relevant for the organisation. Thus, for an
economic enterprise marketing also occurs on the
labour market to recruit highly qualified personnel,
or in capital markets to attract potential investors.
Marketing is a social and managerial process,
aimed at matching an organisation's capabilities
and the wants of its clients so as to reach both
parties' objectives. It rests on the premise that no
organisation can survive unless it meets customer
wants thereby acquiring a competitive advantage
over its rivals. The need for marketing arises
once there are alternatives giving the client or
customer the freedom of choice.