Untitled

esearcher participating in and facilitating change
within the study context.
To ensure findings that are valid, objective and
reapplicable, experimental research design entails
four basic steps. First, the dependent variable �the
phenomenon whose variance the research aims to
explain) needs to be identified. Second, the
independent variables �those factors that may cause
or explain the changes in the dependent variable)
need to be postulated. Third, these variables need
to be operationalised so that the impact controlled
changes to independent variables have on the
dependent variable can be observed. Four, every
effort should be made to ensure that extraneous
variables �other factors that might cause variation
in the dependent variable) are neutralised or at
least controlled. Therefore, experimental research
presents six challenges, three relating to the
definition of these variables and three to observation
and measurement of them.
Although challenging to design, experimentation
has a number of advantages that make it a
suitable research methodology for investigating
tourism phenomena. It has a high degree of
validity, and industry professionals as well as
researchers are able to understand it. This
approach has been used to investigate queue
behaviour �such as in fast food restaurants
and in theme parks), technology interfaces
�vending machines and automated bank telling
machines), work practices �ticketing and hotel
housekeeping) and physical design and layout
�such as cafeteria design and airports).
exploration
PETER JONES, UK
Exploration is the act of travelling to an unfamiliar
territory in order to investigate or to search out
novel phenomena and experiences. The sense of
adventure tourism and danger from heading
out into the uncharted and the unknown has
captured the popular imagination and generated a
romantic and heroic image of the explorer.
Throughout history, tales of travel and discovery
have formed the foundations of scientific fact and
fiction. Early travel diaries, maps and the spoken
word have helped to shape the basis of the
understanding of a multiplicity of disciplines.
Whether it be for commercial, religious, scientific
or imperialistic reasons, names such as Herodotus,
CheÈng Ho, Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, Columbus,
Magellan, Cook, Lewis and Clark and Livingstone,
along with sponsoring institutions such as the
Royal Geographic Society, have all added to a
greater understanding of the world.
Improvements in technology and communication
have made exploring easier. Tourists, in
part, see tourism as the exploration of the
unknown and, like the great explorers of yesteryear,
modern-day tourists return home with
stories, photos and souvenirs documenting their
exploits, an analogous attempt by some to
increase their social status. Cohen's �1972)
typology of tourists ranges from the organised
mass tourist to the drifter �see typology,
tourist). Along the continuum, there is a
gravitation towards greater understanding and
integration with the destination environment.
Explorers usually plan their own trips and try to
avoid touristic attractions. Although they have a
desire to mix with members of the local
community, they still seek the protection of the
`environmental bubble' and are not fully integrated
into the indigenous society. Pearce �1982)
connects an element of psychical risk to explorers.
Smith's �1989) typology ranges from explorers to
charter tourists. By considering the number of
tourists and their relation to the environment,
she argues that there are only a small number of
true explorers left, as there are very few areas of
the world which remain undiscovered. The
current trend in ecotourism continues to push
back the remaining frontiers for tourists. Smith
likens the true explorers to anthropologists who
seek out and investigate the culture of the host
environment.
References
exploration 217
Cohen, E. �1972) `Toward a sociology of international
tourism', Social Research 39�1): 164±82.
Pearce, P. �1982) The Social Psychology of Tourist
Behaviour, Oxford: Pergamon.
Smith, V. �ed.) �1989) Hosts and Guests:the Anthro