Untitled

studies of the differential impact of tourism on
dissimilar kinds of host societies emerged �Smith
1976). Soon after, a new research emphasis
recognised that the tourists themselves are members
of varied types of societies including members
of the Third World �Graburn 1983). Many special
issues of Annals of Tourism Research have been
controlled cross-cultural studies within particular
areas such as Europe, Asia, the Pacific, centrallyplanned
economies or even Antarctica �1994), or
cross-cultural comparisons of select topics such as
ethnicity, tourist guides, the environment, gender
and heritage.
Further reading
Dann, G.M.S., Nash, D. and Pearce, P. �eds) �1988)
`Methodological issues in tourism research,'
special issue of Annals of Tourism Research 15�1).
�A critique of methodological naivete in research,
with examples of qualitative, quantitative
and cross-cultural studies.)
Graburn, N.H.H. �ed.) �1983) `The anthropology of
tourism', special issue of Annals of Tourism Research
10�1). �Case studies of the motivations and
behaviours of tourists from several countries in
a comparative framework.)
Smith, V. �ed.) �1976/1989) Hosts and Guests:The
Anthropology of Tourism, Philadelphia, PA: University
of Pennsylvania Press. �Comparative
introductory chapters, followed by case studies
of the impacts of tourism on minority and
majority peoples in different parts of the world.)
cross-training
NELSON H.H. GRABURN, USA
Cross-training is provided outside one's normal
workplace. This may occur between different
departments in the same hotel, or different hotels
in the same group, but it also refers to staff �often
employees of a multinational firm) being sent to
experience working in hotels in other countries or
regions �for example, from China to France).
YUMING XI, HONG KONG
crowding
Crowding can occur in all scales of tourism
environment, from a hotel or beach to a resort
or landscape. It refers to a state whereby the
numbers of tourists has exceeded a psychological
threshold �see carrying capacity). It is perceived
by the participants as a heightened awareness of
the other tourists in the same space, and a
consequentially reduced sense of pleasure.
cruise line
cruise line 121
MARCUS GRANT, UK
The cruise line sector was born as a response to the
tremendous competition commercial air travel
caused to the traditional passenger liners in the
1960s. The concept of a `floating resort' replaced
that of point-to-point transportation. A cruise is
now defined as a sea or river trip which includes a
minimum of three nights spent aboard, emphasising
animation rather than transportation. Even
shorter one-night cruises on `floating playgrounds'
are now very popular in the Baltic Sea; over 15
million departures and arrivals of sea passengers
were recorded in Finland in 1997, for example.
The cruise business has grown very rapidly, with
double-digit growth rates in the 1970s and 1980s.
Cruises are most popular in North America,
accounting for 77 per cent of the world demand
in 1995. The European market is catching up,
with the cruise holiday being most popular in the
United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and France. In
the rest of the world, Japan and Australia are the
dominant markets. An estimated 6 million North
Americans and 706,000 British people went on
cruises in 1999, representing average growth rates
of 9.3 and 26.9 per cent respectively since 1995.
Demand is also changing qualitatively with shorter,
thematic cruises and more varied destinations.
There is a socio-demographic shift from older and
wealthier to younger, middle-class and married
�with children) customers. Satisfaction, resulting in
repeat cruising, is one of the highest in the tourism
industry.
The number of ships of 1,000 gross tons �a
measure of size) and above increased from 132 in