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scientific and the unashamedly romantic and
mythic.
References
Hobsbawm, E. and Ranger, T. �eds) �1983) The
Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
train see rail
training
TOM SELWYN, UK
Training and education have long been discussed
as two distinct concepts and activities. Training can
be described as the process of preparing or being
prepared for a job, and is usually deemed to be
vocationally specific. Dewey described education as
a `reconstruction or reorganisation of experience
which adds to the meaning of experience, and
which increases ability to direct the course of
subsequent experience' �1916: 89±90). Thus, training
is viewed as a means to teach a skill, whereas
education fosters the development of the whole
person without regard to practical application. In
the case of tourism human resource development,
distinguishing the two concepts is illogical
and unproductive; education and training are
intimately interwoven.
In tourism, the social and market context in
which people work changes over time. Standards
change, technology and economic climate influence
change in the workplace; even the perceptions
of client service expectations change. These
changes relate to emerging skills and skill levels that
impact the training needs of the workforce. Tourism
professionals continually develop their knowledge
base and skills in order to meet the demands of a
dynamic and evolving work climate. This may be
why the tourism training orientation in, for
example, Canada is largely based on humanistic
and technological ideologies.
A humanistic orientation promotes training as a
process of personal development and selfactualisation.
Humanists argue that training
training 593
must be relevant to the learner, and exploratory
with a focus on problem-solving skills, innovation
and creativity. Emphasis is on process rather than
product. Relative growth of the learner is more
important than set goals or criteria to be obtained.
The technological perspective is founded on
efficiency and accountability on achieving results.
Training is competency-driven; the emphasis is on
what learners must be able to perform in the
workplace to be considered competent. Learners
are expected to master skills through a planned and
contrived sequence of instruction. All learning
objectives are based on criteria for performance
and evaluation. The primary concern is to
determine what is not yet learned, and to continue
to focus on meeting these objectives. Often,
technologists arrange training resources in a
modularised format.
Traditional approaches to on-the-job training
leaned towards the technological perspective, but
training is becoming increasingly more focused on
humanistic propositions. Principles from either or
both pedagogic theories are prevalent in tourism
training because of their practical and relevant
applications to the workplace. The task of providing
effective training poses a dilemma for many
employers. Their primary concern is with
employee competency; however, they may not be
good trainers. Regardless of how well they know
the job, bestowing the skills on a trainee is a very
different task. By accepting and following the
principles put forward by both humanists and
technologists, employers enable the learner to
engage in meaningful, relevant training tasks and
thus the latter is made accountable for their own
professional development. The problem with this
accepted approach is the difficulty in succeeding to
define essential prerequisites and learning hierarchies.
Both require an analysis or understanding of
the cognitive functions, which is beyond the scope
of most employers.
Tourism education and training is not a
constant. In order for employees to succeed in an
ever-changing work environment, they must
acquire transferable skills that provide opportunity
and job mobility. Industry professionals must be
taught the fundamental skills necessary for working
in various occupations, including crossoccupational
skills and essential skills. The need