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194 environment
be impaired by inappropriate or poorly designed
facilities. The range, quality and location of
ancillary structures and services thus contribute
significantly to the image and appeal of a
destination.
Clearly, the many ramifications of tourism give
much scope for interaction with the environment.
The degree of impact is related to factors such as
the intensity of tourism site-use, the resilience of the
ecosystem, the time perspective of the developers
and the transformational character of touristic
developments. In addressing the impact of tourism,
there is a tendency to view the options in terms of
opposing alternatives �see alternative tourism):
protecting the environment for tourism, and
protecting the environment from tourism. However,
these objectives need not be mutually exclusive.
Whereas most concern has been expressed regarding
adverse effects, change does not necessarily
equate with degradation. There appear to be
several modes of expression of the impact of
tourism; the net effect may well be environmental
enhancement, or the interaction may be neutral.
Tourism development can contribute to substantial
improvement of recreational resources and
thus add to visitor enjoyment. Tourism can lead, for
example, to an enhanced transportation system
through advances in vehicle and routeway design
which allow greater opportunity for pleasurable and
meaningful participation in this worldwide phenomenon.
Enhanced understanding of the resource
base is another positive result brought about by the
application of revolutionary communication
media techniques to interpret and articulate the
environment to visitors. Beneficial modifications, or
adaptations to climate in the form of recreational
structures, clothing and equipment, have been
developed in response to the stimulus from tourism.
Better managed habitats for fish and wildlife and
control of pests and undesirable species have
become possible through the economic support
and motivation of increased use.
On another plane, increasing cultural consciousness
has stimulated restoration of historic sites and
antiquities. Particularly in Europe, heritage
features such as cathedrals, castles and artefacts
of past eras could not be kept intact if their
existence and preservation had not become the
ongoing concern of a great audience of tourists,
resulting both in substantial financial contributions
from them and generous state support. Design of
contemporary tourism complexes also appears to
be benefiting from the demands of a more
discerning tourist population. Whereas there
remain many examples of unfortunate additions
to the touristic landscape, environmental modification
for today's tourist increasingly is marked
by quality architecture, design and engineering.
Higher standards of safety, sanitation and
maintenance also help to reduce the potential for
pollution. These advances demonstrate that tourism
need not destroy natural and cultural values,
and in fact can contribute to an aesthetically
pleasing landscape. The environment also includes
human resources, and tourism may affect customs,
crafts, attitudes, traditional values and the general
way of life.
Although it can be conceded that tourism has
much �perhaps unrealised) potential for environmental
enhancement, negative impacts do occur
from the predatory effects of seasonal migrations
of visitors. The most obvious repercussions are
likely to be in natural areas, but the built
environment may also be impaired and the social
fabric of host communities can be widely disrupted.
Pollution, both direct and indirect and in all its
forms, is a conspicuous manifestation of the
detrimental effect of tourism. However, erosion of
the resource base is probably a more serious
environmental aspect. This can range from incidental
wear and tear of fauna, flora, and
structures, to vandalism and deliberate destruction
or removal of features which constitute the appeal
of a setting. This erosive process can be accelerated
by use of technological innovations and by inferior
design and inappropriate style in the construction
of tourism facilities. In parts of the old world �for
example, Hurghada in Egypt) hotels and resorts
can only be described as an architectural affront to
the natural or historical sites where they are
located. It is such circumstances which give some
substance to the assertion that the creation of
ugliness could be one of tourism's `greatest
contributions' to the environment.
In many resort areas, environments must serve
not only conflicting touristic uses but also the
resident community, many of whom take a
proprietorial attitude towards their surroundings.