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178 education method
enhance the learning process. The traditional
lecture format, involving teacher±student interaction,
remains important. This is increasingly
complemented by computer-assisted education
�see education, computer-assisted). Experiential
learning employs the medium of real-world
settings to provide the student with information
and knowledge directly related to its context of
application. Project-based learning allows students
to utilise various forms of the scientific method to
gain insights into tourism. Distance education
formats have traditionally involved print media,
but increasingly utilise electronic technology to
bring the teacher and learners together.
See also: education policy; educational
effectiveness; education method
education method
J.R. BRENT RITCHIE, CANADA
Educational methods have been evolving with time
and technology. The earliest known systematic
method of imparting knowledge was the oral
method, whereby information and knowledge was
transferred through word-of-mouth from one
generation to another. Then came the age of
written communication, when knowledge and skills
were delivered in writing. This process was and is
still considered to have a lasting impact on human
memory. Nevertheless the former method maintained
its importance and value, and this became
popular as learning by `rote'. Both these methods
prevailed for centuries and continued to form the
basis of formal educational methods. The three Rs
seemed to be quintessential to personality development.
The evolution of knowledge systems gave rise to
multiple disciplines. In order to facilitate a proper
understanding of sciences and arts, innovative
methods were adopted and were fine-tuned with
experience and technology. Experience thus gained
showed that involvement of the learner was
perhaps the most effective and efficient educational
device �see education effectiveness). In fulfilment
of this objective various methods have been
identified, each characterised by their distinctive set
of utilities and limitations. These may be broadly
classified under two major headings: content
presentation and interactive methods. The former
ranges from the rather formal to informal styles.
The most prevalent and best known are lecture
�semi-formal and informative), demonstration �performance-based),
field trip �projectional, observation-based),
panels/symposium/forum �opinion
and experience talks) and one-on-one training
�participative and interactive).
As to the second approach, there are approximately
nine well-established and commonly practised
interactive methods. These include group
discussion �motivational and interesting), role play
�skill rehearsal), brainstorming �idea generation,
increases awareness), case study �analytical, problem
solving), project �assignment-based, reportoriented),
learner's presentation �prepared/
impromptu speeches), games and simulations �contrived/reality
exercises), in-basket �managementoriented
problem solving), and computer-based
instruction �stimulating software usage). The other
interactive methods induce the learners to think,
contribute and grow. Instructors often experiment
with these methodologies singularly or in combination.
Choice of method�s) is made on the basis of the
learning objective�s) and level of learning, the
learner's level of knowledge/skill/interest and also
the availability of resources. Today, formal education
must complement professional education and
hence the methods adopted for one remain more or
less similar for the other. Professional educational/
training is a complex task involving multidisciplinary
knowledge, thus demanding more than one
approach for a fuller understanding of the philosophies,
principles and practices. The same is true of
education and/or training.
Tourism as a phenomenon is complex and
embraces all spheres of technical know-how and
human expertise. Education in this sphere of
activity is a daunting task, that has become a
major challenge to its quality existence. Owing to
its all-pervading diversity, tourism's' subject matter
is treated from various aspects. For an understanding
of the educational methodologies, tourism
courses can be classed under three major established
approaches. First, the disciplinary approach
is academic in nature and includes teaching,
learning and research. Second, the vocational
approach trains and aids in the development of