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hand, this situation demands that tourism researchers
master and become familiar with quantitative
methods �even if only to argue against using
these methods in particular circumstances). Tourism
specialists should be aware that some of their
business colleagues might discount the value of
qualitative methods even though these tools have
long been a staple in tourism research.
Tourism, as a field of investigation and as a
profession, needs also to use the strengths and
legitimacy of qualitative and humanistic research
traditions. Today, due to the embrace of qualitative
research by business scholars, it is no longer
necessary to defend this choice. Both quantitative
and qualitative research methods are significant
and legitimate. All researchers must be able to
defend study techniques they embrace, including
their decision to use �social) specific research
strategies in a particular circumstance. In the final
analysis, on many occasions qualitative research
techniques are indeed the method of choice.
See also: Delphi technique
quality
ALFH.WALLE,USA
Quality, like beauty, lies in the eye of the beholder.
Definitions of quality have gradually evolved from
a focus on the product-based attributes of the
manufacturing sector to the intangible characteristics
of quality found in tourism sectors. However,
quality in the manufacturing sector differs significantly
from quality in tourism. In manufacturing
businesses, a tangible product is produced where
replication is often possible. Customers of these
products experience less risk as they can always
return items if quality is lacking. The goods are
produced in an environment separate from the
point of sale and unsold items can usually be
stored.
In tourism, the product is often intangible and
quality is not apparent until after it is consumed.
The consumer has no opportunity to return the
product if quality is inferior. Its perishable nature
also makes it impossible to store it, and production
and consumption often occur simultaneously with
the consumer being present during the process.
quality 479
The high level of human input into the product
makes replication more difficult, particularly when
greater amounts of customisation are possible in
the product.
Quality guru W. Edwards Deming set out fourteen
points for the management of quality in the
manufacturing sector �Dobyns and Crawford-
Mason 1994). The main issue apparent in these
points is that producing quality is a continuous
process or series of processes, with a wide range of
factors influencing both the processes and the final
outcome. Understanding the processes and adding,
changing or removing any steps that hinder the
process are key requirements for achieving the goal.
For a quality end product to be obtained, it is
essential to recognise what quality means to the
consumer in industry sectors, individual businesses
and specific transactions. In an AT&T study �Sanes
1996), 70 per cent of customer satisfaction was
found to be dependent on customer service rather
than the tangible product.
Quality has been defined as zero defects or
defections �Reichheld and Sasser 1992), but still
may be defined by the customer. Quality is
conformance to standards, with its composite as a
function of its component. The International
Organisation for Standardisation defines quality
as `the totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy
stated or implied needs'. Others believe that quality
is a combination of outcome and processes,
including internal and external conditions, and it
is obtained when the expectations and needs of
customers are met.
Many tools exist to assist organisations along the
road to superior quality. Those firmly committed to
this goal may wish to look at quality best practices
and benchmarks for their own organisations.
Benchmarking is a technique where standards
are set in key metrics defined by the organisation.
Examples of quality best practices can come from
the same industry or from other industries.
Companies in the retail sector may apply and
adapt best practices from the hotel or other
tourism sectors, and vice versa. There are many
areas where quality can be benchmarked. In
human resource management, best practices for
attracting, selecting, inducting and training and
developing employees can be used. In the service