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ings. An element is a component which must exist
for the system in question to exist. For example,
useful models of whole tourism systems have
tourist�s) as an element, since without tourists there
can be no tourism. They also have destination
region and origin �or generating) region as two
more elements, by the same logic.
Attributes are features or characteristics of an
element that makes it part of a system, linking it to
the other elements. For example, urban congestion
and pollution are attributes of many of the world's
traveller-generating regions; those features influence
many residents to seek temporary escape via
tourism, a behavioural process which involves those
residents becoming tourists, visiting places beyond
their home city, places which are destinations.
Elements forming a system do not do this
because of their immanent qualities but by their
arrangement in that system, where they are not
significantly connected except with reference to the
whole. That axiom indicates a distinction between
relationship thinkers and system thinkers. If the
former sees beautiful scenery, they imagine that the
region is �or should be) a destination because of its
beauty, the two facts seem related. Systems thinkers
understand that beautiful scenery is an immanent
quality which, on its own, does not and cannot
make a region a destination, nor can advertising or
business investment �Leiper 1995: 30±1). For a
place to become a successful destination, a number
of connected elements are necessary.
Certain systems can be seen in hierarchies. In
principle, every system has superior and subsystems.
The latter are derived by analysing elements
and attributes in their fundamental components.
`Whole system' is a heading for the superior system
in a field. Common concepts of systems theory
include whole systems and subsystems, framework
and clockwork systems, inputs and outputs, environments,
feedback, entropy, negative entropy,
proliferating variety, dynamic systems and homeostatic
systems, equifinality, interdisciplinarity and
multidisciplinarity. While all those concepts are
mentioned in the tourism literature, to date few
have been explored in depth.
Tourism generally involves notably open systems,
so environmental interactions are a major
interest. In some places, environmental impacts are
reduced, or altered, by closing off parts of the
system, reducing its open qualities. One strategy
for this is integrated resorts. A number of
researchers have devised simple framework and
clockwork models of systems. Theoretical research
on feedback and proliferating variety in relation to
tourism has been conducted by Leiper �1995: 307±
19); this has helped analysis of part-industrialisation,
which has implications for all elements of
tourism systems and their environments.
Systems thinking's pervasion of traditional
disciplines has been a counter balance to the main
approach in modern academia. That approach has
allowed a rapid expansion of knowledge in specific
physical and social sciences. But it involves
concentration on analytical fact-finding and narrow
theory building. Countering this fragmentation,
systems theories are serving as a unifying
bridge, a means of co-ordinating multidisciplinarity
education and research.
See also: system, tourism
References
Bertalanffy, L. von �1972) `General systems theory:
a critical review', in J. Beilshon and G. Peters
�eds), Systems Behaviour, London: Open University
Press, 29±49.
Emery, F. �ed.) �1981) Systems Thinking, Harmondsworth:
Penguin.
Leiper, N. �1995) Tourism Management, Melbourne:
RMIT Press.
Further reading
systems theory 571
Churchman, C.W. �1979) The Systems Approach, New
York: Laurel Press.
Espejo, R. and Harnden, R. �eds) �1989) The Viable
Systems Model:Interpretations and Applications of
Stafford Beer's VSM, Chichester: John Wiley.
Fox, K. and Miles, D.G. �eds) �1987) Systems
Economics:Concepts, Models and Multidisciplinary
Perspectives, Iowa State University Press.
NEIL LEIPER, AUSTRALIA