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248 geographical information system
and the Other which, as object of the gaze, is
rarely embodied or analysed from a feminist
perspective.
Gender, as a concept within tourism studies, is
analysed and worked with in a number of different
ways. This is largely due to its association with a
variety of feminist theories which enlighten gender
inquiry. However, gender-aware frameworks for
inquiry do offer the opportunity to think through a
number of complexities that are involved within the
processes of tourism development. From the
values and activities of the transnational operator
to the differential experiences of individuals participating
as either hosts or guests, all parts of the
tourism experience are influenced by the collective
understanding of the social construction of gender.
References
Crukier, J., Norris, J. and Wall, G. �1996) `The
involvement of women in the tourism industry of
Bali, Indonesia', The Journal of Development Studies
33�2): 248±70.
Kinnaird, V. and Hall, D. �eds) �1994) Tourism:A
Gender Analysis, Chichester: John Wiley.
Kousis, M. �1989) `Tourism and the family in a
rural Cretan community', Annals of Tourism
Research 16�3): 318±32.
Swain, M. �1993) `Women producers of ethnic
arts', Annals of Tourism Research 20�1): 32±51.
ÐÐ �ed.) �1995) Special Issue of Annals of Tourism
Research 22�2).
Veijola, S. and Jokinen, E. �1994) `The body in
tourism', Theory, Culture and Society 11: 125±51.
VIVIAN KINNAIRD, UK
geographical information system
Geographical information systems �GIS) are computer
systems with facilities for the storage,
retrieval, manipulation and display of spatiallyreferenced,
usually mapped, information. They
can be used to organise, integrate and manipulate
a wide variety of spatial and non-spatial information
that is required to address land use planning
issues, including those for tourism. Location serves
as the common attribute for linking data that may
differ substantially in their source, thematic context,
digital format and geographic extent. Spatial
data are those which describe the geographical or
coordinate attributes of entities represented symbolically
using graphic primitives such as points,
lines, grid cells or irregular polygons.
The graphical display of data in map form can
enhance the abilities of individuals to identify
patterns in data or features, to conceptualise spatial
relationships among different phenomena, and
communicate ideas to others. In contrast to printed
maps, this form of data presentation is highly
flexible as map content and associated information
and analytical techniques can be changed relatively
easily. Further, the processes of exploring, understanding
and communicating the ramifications of
complex policy alternatives can be aided greatly
through visualisation of distributions using GIS.
Although not yet widely used in tourism, the
potential applications of GIS are large and diverse.
Examples of their application include the identification
of areas which meet criteria suggesting
suitability for ecotourism, the availability and
manipulation of data for computer-assisted travel
counselling, and land use planning in destination
areas.
Further reading
Boyd, S.W. and Butler, R.W. �1996) `Seeing the
forest through the trees: using geographical
information systems to identify potential ecotourism
sites in northern Ontario, Canada', in
L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands �eds), Practicing
Responsible Tourism:International Case Studies in
Tourism Planning:Policy, and Development, New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 380±403.
Loban, S. �1997) À framework for computerassisted
travel counselling', Annals of Tourism
Research 24�4): 813±34.
geography
GEOFFREY WALL, CANADA
Geography can be viewed as the study of the earth
as the home of human beings. While the habitat
can be regarded as an object, geography is not