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and economists. The strong hypothetico-deductive
systems of empirically based psychology research
has many virtues including rigour in designing
studies and considerable analytical acumen. Regrettably,
the demands of the inherently social and
context-dependent phenomenon of tourism have
often been seen as unmanageable for researchers
with a predisposition to conduct laboratory work.
Nevertheless, the study of tourist behaviour is vital
to a sound understanding of tourism and the
continued development of psychologically-based
studies for understanding the entire phenomenon
of tourism is vital for customer satisfaction and
management success.
References
Langer, E.J. �1989) Mindfulness, Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Pearce, P.L. �1988) The Ulysses Factor:Evaluating
Visitors in Tourist Settings, New York: Springer
Verlag.
Plog, S. �1974) `Why destination areas rise and fall
in popularity', Cornell Hotel Restaurant and Administration
Quarterly: 55±8.
Further reading
Ross, G.F. �1994) The Psychology of Tourism, Melbourne:
Melbourne Hospitality Press.
public goods
PHILIP L. PEARCE, AUSTRALIA
Products or services provided and indiscriminately
distributed by the state to all members of the
society are collectively known as public goods. This
is in contrast to private goods, which are dispensed
by markets. Public goods such as highway signs
serve tourists. Some public goods are differently
distributed, like police forces focus attention on
restless areas. Impure public goods, like parks and
recreations areas, lie at particular locations.
MARJA PAAJANEN, FINLAND
public health
public health 473
The new public health integrates human wellbeing
into the ecosystem. Public health has its
origins in mid-nineteenth century Europe, introduced
to deal with urban problems of air and water
quality, food-borne infection �see food-borne
illness) and diseases arising out of poor hygiene
and poverty. The most important solutions to these
problems came from changes to social conditions
rather than advances in medical technology.
Environmental health, preventative medicine and
social reform were key components of this notion
of public health.
In more modern times, despite changes in the
pattern of illness from infectious disease to
lifestyle-related illnesses, this conception of public
health began to fade. By the 1970s, the emphasis
shifted from `public' to `individual' risk factors.
The link between social change and public health
weakened. Less emphasis was placed on the
interdependence of health and the social and
physical environments. Individuals were seen as
responsible for their lifestyles and health risk
factors.
In the 1980s, the World Health Organisation
and other authorities recognised alarming trends
related to a reduction in health equity. The Ottawa
Charter of 1986 marked another reorientation of
public health away from the dominant notion of
the individual, simplistic `cause±effect interventions'
and surveillance approaches, towards a more
complex environmental and social model. This
ecological approach served to emphasise the
interconnections among humans, their physical
and social environments and their health.
Tourism is a modern phenomenon linked to a
number of positive causal factors, including a rise
in the standard of living, desires to improve quality
of life, increases in recreation and leisure
pursuits, and the desire to reduce the stress of
modern living. As part of that improvement, it is
logical that successful tourism should be closely
linked with health promotion. The World Commission
on Environment and Development report
entitled Our Common Future �also known as the
Brundtland Report) �1987) stressed the need to
reconcile economic development with the
resource endowment of the natural world and