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452 political socialisation
tourism. Countries may reach a point where they
forbid citizens to visit certain other countries.
Others may refuse them entry. Bilateral and
multilateral treaties and the burgeoning field of
tourism law are growing around such issues as
terrorism, airline rights, smuggling, investment
and health issues �see also treaty). Multinational
organisations like the United Nations,
UNESCO, the World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund and the World Tourism Organization,
as well as nongovernmental organisations
like the Economic Coalition on Third World
Tourism, transnational corporations and even
religious organisations are also involved in international
labour relations, historic site preservation
and environmental lobbying.
Public administration is centred around the
budgeting, organising, personnel and overall
implementation of policies which increasingly has
required an attention to tourism. Growing numbers
of governments at all levels have sought
economic development from an expanded
tourism base. Agencies are much more involved
in promotion, planning and in some cases actual
ownership of tourism facilities, as well as the
collection and auditing of taxes collected from the
private sector. Some governments have also used
their public sector to burnish the images of
controversial regimes through governmentinstigated
tourism. Public administration as a
subfield has paid little attention to the growing
employment and proliferation of departments in
public sector tourism, though there have been a
number of case studies that have examined
industry's role in a particular jurisdiction.
Political theory is another subfield that could
raise issues germane to tourism but rarely does. As
St Augustine suggests, `The world is a book. He
who stays at home reads only one page.' Scholars
note the various intellectual influences on philosophers,
but often equally relevant are their travels
and experiences in other societies. Alexis de
Tocqueville's classic Democracy in America was a
product of his nineteenth-century journey through
the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, Mahatma
Gandhi and Karl Marx were but a few thinkers
profoundly affected by their travels. Some have
argued that explorations and subsequent travel
accounts premised on the `backwardness of the
natives' helped to legitimise imperial adventures
and justify the colonisation of millions throughout
the world.
Further reading
Hall, C.M. �1994) Tourism and Politics, London:
Wiley. �Explores the politics of tourism with
special reference to the Pacific.)
Matthews, H. and Richter, L.K. �1991) `Political
science and tourism: the state of the art,' Annals
of Tourism Research 18�1). �Reviews and organises
political studies of tourism and identifies research
gaps.)
political socialisation
LINDAK.RICHTER,USA
Political socialisation is the process by which one
acquires familiarity with political institutions and a
sense of one's role, place and values with respect
to politics. The family, education, work, the
media, social class, age and religion are among
the elements that shape such socialisation. Tourism
also affects the acquisition of political values. Few
have actually considered how tourism has shaped
political awareness, although the school fieldtrip,
the religious pilgrimage and the diffusion of ideas
through outbound travels are commonly acknowledged
to be influential. Even the family
vacation can convey political information, though
such outings are seldom mentioned as an agent of
political socialisation.
Though government may influence many of the
institutions affecting socialisation, the degree of
control varies among societies. Moreover, groups
and individuals may have very different socialisation
experiences within the same society. White
South Africans, for example, have had quite a
different orientation to political power than have
blacks. The symbols of sovereignty, the political
memories and milestones will differ. Political and
cultural conditions will affect if, how and where
tourists travel. Women, for example, may not be
allowed in some nations to travel alone or without
a veil, or drive a car. Minority ethnic and racial
groups may be unwelcome in some destinations,