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quality of the environment. In the more aware,
sophisticated and technologically-based societies of
the industrialised world, environmental quality is
equated with quality of life. This in turn assumes
access to a range of creature comforts and amenity
resources which are wanted to enrich human
welfare well beyond basic needs of existence.
In tourism, environmental quality can act as a
major attraction or an impediment. The environment
of a destination which is seen to be
impaired by deficiencies in physical attributes �such
as water quality), or shortcomings in the social
sphere �like crime), will have a negative effect on
tourist numbers and satisfaction. Conversely, a
tourism facility or destination which strives to build
and maintain an attractive, functional and secure
environment of high quality can anticipate increased
patronage. The challenge then is to ensure
that greater numbers do not lead to a consequent
deterioration in environmental quality.
Evaluation of the quality of environments for
tourism is perhaps even more susceptible to
subjectivity. Whereas most environments probably
have some potential for tourism, this is not easy to
establish with any precision because of the
personalised manner in which settings are selected
and experienced. Generalisation and interpersonal
comparisons are of doubtful validity and the
multiple characteristics of a tourism environment
make disaggregation and evaluation of environmental
quality a risky undertaking.
Despite the essentially subjective nature of the
variables involved, much attention is being devoted
to developing useful measures of environmental
quality. However, once again, achieving agreement
on what constitutes superior quality and the many
aspects which call for assessment make the task
problematic. The best that can be achieved is the
application of a specific set of environmental
indicators to a discrete attribute of the tourism
environment �such as noise levels and traffic
congestion). Even then, care needs to be taken
that a simple additive process is not applied to
generate a composite representation of environmental
quality, especially when intangible factors
such as aesthetics can blur the overall setting.
State of the environment reports are now being
produced by many industrialised countries and
such reporting is an obligation for member nations
quality, environmental 481
of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development. This body uses a
pressure-state-response model for its reporting
system. The model is based on the concept of
causality. Human activities, such as tourism, exert
pressures on the environment and change its state
or condition. The changed state of the environment
leads to responses by way of policy
initiatives, legislative reforms and changes in public
behaviour. These responses complete the cycle by
influencing tourism activities which exert pressure
on the environment.
Clearly, monitoring the quality of the environment
and the way it responds to pressures is
fundamental to determining whether current
patterns of tourism are sustainable. A common
approach, noted above, is the development of a
specific set of indicators for each matter of
environmental concern. Such indicators need to
be scientifically credible, easily understood, costeffective,
and serve as a robust, sensitive indicator
of environmental change and potential problems.
In terms of the OECD model, indicators can be
developed to measure the pressures on the
environment arising from tourism; the condition
or state of the environment �that is, the environmental
quality as a consequence of tourism); and
the extent and effectiveness of responses to
environmental concerns.
In the context of a tourism facility, an indicator
of increased environmental pressure might be the
introduction of motorised pleasure craft on to a
confined waterbody. Indicators of the consequent
state of the environment might include the
presence of air and water pollutants, noise nuisance
and erosion of foreshores. Indicators of response
could in this case encompass a range of measures
including speed restrictions, licensing and zoning.
The effectiveness of societal responses to pressure
and changes to environmental quality should in
turn be subject to appropriate performance
indicators and with reference to established
base-line conditions. By reporting regularly and
systematically on the state of the environment and
responding appropriately, the tourism industry can
help ensure its long-term sustainability.
See also: codes of ethics, environmental;
ecologically sustainable tourism; environmental