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Therefore, it is surprising that the European
Commission, so active in other sectorial economic
policies �for example, the Common Agricultural
Policy), has not set an explicit framework for the
competitiveness of its tourism industry.
Although billions of ecus in the EUbudgets have
been spent in the creation and promotion of
tourism products in Europe and abroad �including
EUcooperation programmes with developing
countries overseas), this has been done through the
structural funds and programmes addressing other
issues �see also promotion, place). Most EU
directives have had profound effects on tourism,
but as a secondary, and in many cases unwanted,
effect. Although a directorate general �DG XXIII)
has been in charge of tourism issues since 1989, its
programmes �such as the European Year of
Tourism of 1990, the European Action Plan on
Tourism 1992±5, or the non-born Phyloxenia
project in 1996±7) have turned out to be failures
because of very small budgets �for example, 16
million ecu was budgeted for the whole of the fouryear
Action Plan on Tourism), unsophisticated
design of the programmes and actions, lack of coordination
with other directorates within the
Commission and with the national tourism organisations
of member countries, and even inadequate
management �as in the European Year of
Tourism and the Action Plan).
In this context, the European private stakeholders
in tourism have been understandably
hesitant between the desire to have a proper
supranational framework fostering the competitiveness
of the industry, and the fear that more
intervention by Brussels could lead to unwanted
and inefficient conditions. All in all, explicit
tourism policy in Europe remains in the hands of
national, regional and local governments that, in
most cases, work in close cooperation with the
private sector. Intervention by EUinstitutions takes
place as a result of policies only indirectly
addressed to the tourism industry.
References
Commission of the European Union �1995) The
Role of the Union in Tourism, Green Paper of the
Commission, Brussels: Commission of the European
Union.
Further reading
Commission of the European Union, Eurostat,
DGXXIII �1997) Tourism in Europe. Key Figures
1995±1996, Brussels: Commission of the European
Union.
World Tourism Organization �1998) Yearbook of
Tourism Statistics, Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
event
event 209
EDUARDO FAYOS-SOLAÁ ,SPAIN
MARI LUZ RUFILANCHAS, SPAIN
Each day witnesses countless temporary occurrences;
most are private and unrecorded, while
many are unplanned news events. Others are
staged for purposes of gaining publicity and, in the
words of Boorstin �1961), might be called `pseudo
events' because they are neither spontaneous nor
authentic. Of particular interest in the context of
tourism are planned events, either one-time or
periodic, which feature prominently in place
promotion strategies and destination marketing
�see marketing, destination; promotion,
place). The sense of rarity and urgency associated
with one-time events provides a major part of their
appeal. However, periodic events also have a
unique ambiance formed from their fixed duration,
special setting, programme, management and
those in attendance.
The major categories of planned events include
cultural celebrations �such as festivals, carnivals,
religious ceremonies, parades, heritage commemorations),
art and entertainment �concerts and
other performances, exhibits, award ceremonies),
business and trade �fairs and sales; consumer and
trade shows, expositions, meetings and conferences,
publicity stunts, fund-raisers), sport competitions
�professional and amateur), education and
scientific �seminars and workshops, clinics, congresses,
interpretative events), recreational �games
and sports for fun, amusements), and political and
state occasions �inaugurations, investitures, VIP
visits, rallies).
Within the public domain is an ever-increasing
number and variety of festivals and special events
which enrich lives, give meaning to communities