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214 exoticism
tion management), University of Surrey �hospitality
and catering) and George Washington University
�tourism sustainable development).
See also: collaborative education; career;
education method; professionalism; training
Further reading
Bolt, J. �1989) Executive Development:A Strategy for
Corporate Competitiveness, New York: Harper and
Row.
Moulton, H. and Fickel, A. �1993) Executive
Development:Preparing for the 21st Century, New
York: Oxford University Press.
exoticism
DONALD ANDERSON, CANADA
Exoticism refers to the characteristics attributed to
peoples, plants, animals and landscapes outside
the familiar reference system of the speaker. Such
phenomena may be viewed as exciting or fearsome,
or with ambivalence. In the world of tourists, the
exotic features of foreign places are frequently
played up as attractive or exciting images in
advertising and on site markers. The arts and
craft productions of indigenous peoples are often
subject to commoditisation for ethnic tourism.
Unusual landscapes and exotic fauna and
flora are frequently marked off and preserved as
game park reserves or wilderness for touristic
consumption.
Such labelling is ethnocentric because strangeness
is always relative to the experience of the
speaker or writer. Because tourism is overwhelmingly
a phenomenon of the industrialised West
and East Asia, and of the middle and upper classes
of all countries, it is institutions of their creation,
such as travel agencies, tourism bureaus,
transportation and hotel companies, which
invent and publicise these labels. The appellation
exotic is usually applied to non-Western urban or
non-modern rural ways of life, to tropical or arctic
fauna and flora, and to minority, native and
aboriginal peoples �see also natives). Consequently,
unchecked tourism to such fragile places
may cause ecological or social changes which harm
the flora, fauna or peoples so that they are no
longer attractions, or tourism may cause exotic
peoples to act out their lives so as to conform to the
fantasy expectations of the tourists. Some target
peoples, such as the Balinese and the Torajans of
Indonesia, accept tourist demands for exotic
performances and have modified their material
and ritual behaviour without losing all the
important meanings. Other peoples, such as the
Inupiaq of Alaska, the Aborigines of Australia and
many of the Pueblo Indians of the American
Southwest, have rejected tourist curiosity by
forbidding entry, prohibiting photography, or
charging entry fees to parts or all of their living
spaces.
Further reading
Cohen, E. �1989) `Primitive and remote: hill tribe
trekking in Thailand', Annals of Tourism Research
16�1): 30±61. �Shows how the discourse of
advertising in Northern Thailand exoticises the
hilltribes in creating fantasies of naturalness and
naivete appealing to Western tourists.)
Graburn, N.H.H. �ed.) �1976) Ethnic and Tourist Arts:
Cultural Expressions from the Fourth World, Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press. �Discusses
the processes by which the arts and crafts of
ethnic and minority peoples may become
extinct, revived, trinketised, transformed or
appropriated for tourist consumption.)
expatriate
NELSON H.H. GRABURN, USA
Expatriates are staff, often managers, who are not
nationals of the country where they are working,
employed for specialist operational abilities or
knowledge of the employing organisation �typically
in multinational firms). They commonly receive
higher salaries, longer leave and other
benefits than local employees, which, along with
cultural differences, can create conflict. Typically
expatriate tourism employees work in developing
countries or destinations.