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116 cosmopolitanism
analysis is much easier to apply on existing
databases.
Historically, the methodological aspects of the
analysis and its various aliases ± canonical scoring,
homogeneity analysis, reciprocal averaging and
dual scaling ± go back to the 1930s. Hence, while
the technique has received considerable attention
within the statistical and psychometrical literature
for decades, the academic interest within marketing
research only began in the mid-1980s. Still,
according to Greenacre �1989), there are some
disadvantages of using correspondence analysis.
Since it is an exploratory data analysis, the
technique is not suitable for hypothesis testing.
Further, some academic concern deals with
whether it is at all meaningful to interpret distance
between row points and column points simultaneously.
All major statistical computer packages
today include programs for performing correspondence
analysis.
See also: perceptual mapping
References
Greenacre, M.J. �1989) `The Carroll-Green-Schaffer
scaling in correspondence analysis: a theoretical
and empirical appraisal', Journal of Marketing
Research 26 �August): 358±65.
Further reading
Greenacre, M.J. �1993) Correspondence Analysis in
Practice, London: Academic Press. �A nontechnical
introduction by one of the leading scholars of
correspondence analysis theory.)
Lebart, L., Morineau A. and Warwick, K.M.
�1984) Multivariate Descriptive Statistical Analysis:
Correspondence Analysis and Related Techniques for
Large Matrices, New York: Wiley. �Provides the
mathematical derivations of two-way and multiple
correspondence analysis.)
cosmopolitanism
MARCUS SCHMIDT, DENMARK
The term cosmopolitan has ancient origins. While
the Greeks separated the world out into those who
were Greek and those who were barbarians, the
Stoics argued that all human beings were citizens
of the world and children of Zeus and, as such,
cosmopolitans. With the crescendo of nationalism,
global capitalism and the movements of money and
people in the nineteenth century the term
`cosmopolitan' gained in currency in a usage which
often seemed opposed to terms such as patriot. In
tourism, the term sits challengingly between the
realities and rhetorics of a world which is at once
increasingly cosmopolitan ± there are large scale
permanent, semi-permanent and temporary migrations
of workers, refugees and tourists ± and, at
the same time, increasingly nationalistic and
patriotic. For both political leaders angling for the
nationalist vote and tourist brochure writers, it may
often seem that nationalist sites and icons have a
greater power to attract the floating tourist than
the more complex signs of human cosmopolitanism.
In this context, as in others �see nationalism)
tourism is seen to take part in some of the most
urgent political and cultural issues of the day.
cost
TOM SELWYN, UK
The private cost of a tourism product is the sum
of all payments made to obtain the inputs used in
its production �such as accommodation or
airlines). The full cost includes external costs,
which may be economic, environmental, psychological,
social or cultural, and frequently affect
those not directly involved in the production or
consumption of tourism and the value of free
inputs �such as scenery).
ROBERT MAITLAND, UK
cost±benefit analysis see benefit±cost analysis
Costa Rica
The Central American nation of Costa Rica
�population 3.5 million) features many attractions,
with beaches on both the Caribbean and Pacific
coasts, dense rainforests, volcanoes, waterfalls, and