Cambridge Ancient Hi.. - Index of

198 7. government and administration
commercial production in towns, the emperor perhaps hoped to gain more
from the closer supervision of an increased movement of goods.
Another indication of greater official interest in trade is the growing
number, from the time of Anastasius, of lead seals which belonged to individuals
entitled commerciarius: it is disputed whether these should be
regarded as customs collectors, who developed into controllers of state
warehouses, or as the farmers of the more lucrative monopolies, but in the
sixth and early seventh century they included men of high status who
sometimes moved into, or even from, major office. In the latter years of
Justinian, the bankers of Constantinople were capable of underwriting
substantial imperial expenditure, even if somewhat reluctantly; they were
also attached to, and politically involved with, leading courtiers and soldiers.
154 These developments were not confined to the east: in the west
Valentinian III had met military needs through the creation of the siliquaticum
tax on sales and purchases; in Spain and Italy the Ostrogoths sold
monopolies to merchants, perhaps – as conjectured by Jones – to ease collection
of the siliquaticum; at Ravenna the wealth of the banker Julianus
Argentarius rivalled that of his Constantinopolitan contemporaries; in
Merovingian Gaul, customs dues sustained royal revenues while the return
from the land-tax declined; in Anglo-Saxon Britain, royal control was maintained
over centres of commerce and production, and resources were allocated
to the upkeep of the Roman road system over considerable
distances. 155 The involvement of the state in such economic matters is paralleled
by that of major bishops – for example, John the Almsgiver at
Alexandria or pope Gregory at Rome – and big secular landowners, such
as the Apions.
The problem of distinguishing between civilian and military competences
supports the impression that aspects of administration were haphazard
rather than the product of systematic design. 156 Separation of military
command from provincial administration is accepted as an important
element in the stability of the empire in the fourth century, a separation
achieved through Diocletian’s initiation of the process whereby duces assumed
the military responsibilities of provincial governors, through Constantine’s
completion of that process and his removal of military duties from praetorian
prefects, and by the insistence of conscientious emperors, like
Constantius II, on preserving the divide. 157 In Ostrogothic Italy, this separation
of powers (to which there were some exceptions) was displayed as a
balance between Goths who fought and Romans who paid and administered
154 Hendy, Studies 626–9; Nesbitt (1977); Oikonomides (1986); Dunn (1993). Bankers: Coripp. Iust.
ii.361–406, with the notes of Cameron, Corippus; Barnish (1985) 35.
155 Nov. Val. 15, 24. Ostrogoths: Cass. Variae ii.4; ii.26.4; ii.30.3 with Jones, LRE 826. Iulius: Barnish
(1985). Gaul: Pirenne (1939). Britain: Sawyer and Wood (1977) 143–8; Rackham (1986) 257.
156 Tomlin (1976). 157 Amm. Marc. xxi.16.1.
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