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40 2. the eastern empire: theodosius to anastasius
with an element of self-interest. 43 However, the Vandal capture of
Carthage with its docks and shipping introduced a dramatic new element
into the equation. The western empire promptly undertook hurried defensive
measures in anticipation of sea-borne attacks on Italy, 44 and an imperial
order to extend the mural defences of Constantinople along the
seaward sides of the city has often been interpreted in the same light. 45 The
Vandal invasion of Sicily in 440 showed that there was genuine cause for
apprehension, and concern about its potential ramifications for the security
of the eastern Mediterranean must have influenced Constantinople’s
decision to commit substantial forces to the expedition of 441.
In the event, the expedition never progressed beyond Sicily because a
Hun offensive in the Balkans forced Constantinople to recall its troops.
Not for the first time during Theodosius’ reign, Hunnic moves dictated
eastern policy. The Huns had of course impinged on Roman horizons well
before Theodosius’ accession, having first made their presence felt indirectly
as far back as the 370s, when their movements across the steppe
regions north of the Caspian and Black Seas induced Gothic tribes adjacent
to the lower Danube to seek admission to the empire. However, it was
probably not until the early years of Theodosius’ reign that the Huns themselves
reached the Danube in significant numbers, 46 or were in a position
to pose a serious threat to the heartlands of the eastern empire.
Throughout history, the general socio-economic character of nomadic
pastoralist peoples such as the Huns has never been conducive to the emergence
of centralized political power – dispersal in small groups over large
areas, absence of permanent settlements, and minimal social differentiation
have tended to militate against any such development. However, where
they are able to establish dominance over a sedentary population and
exploit their produce and manpower, such a development can occur. 47 By
the early fifth century, the Huns had achieved hegemony over various
settled peoples living north of the Danube – Goths, Gepids, Heruls and
others – and Constaninople found itself having to deal with rulers such as
Rua and Attila who could command significant human and material
resources.
The consequences were felt for the first time in 422 when Rua took
advantage of imperial preoccupation with war against Persia to launch an
invasion of Thrace, and the empire had to buy him off by agreeing to an
annual payment of 350 pounds of gold. 48 Rua employed a similar strategy
in 434, making further demands when significant numbers of eastern
troops were absent defending Carthage against the Vandals. Negotiations
43 Kaegi (1968) ch. 1; Matthews (1975) 378–82. 44 Nov. Val. 5 (March 440), 9 (June 440).
45 Chron. Pasch. p.583 with Whitby and Whitby (1989) 72 n. 243. 46 Heather (1995) 5–19.
47 Anderson (1974) 219–26; Khazanov (1984) ch. 5.
48 Croke (1977) with Zuckerman (1994) 162 n. 12.
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