Cambridge Ancient Hi.. - Index of

540 19. italy, a.d. 425,605
tracts of land. As this circumstance grew more entrenched, and as patterns
of settlement in Byzantine territories increasingly focused on fortified castra,
the distinction between the new military aristocracy and local élites became
blurred. The system was reflected in the upper echelons of government too,
with the duties of governor entrusted to the exarch, an office which, if its
remit was unclear at first, was unequivocally military by c. 600. 68 A similar
development occurred under the Lombards, particularly in the frontier
duchies like Friuli: well into the seventh century, weapons are a major feature
of Lombard burials in such areas. 69 Although they had started out from very
different positions, Lombard and Byzantine societies in Italy had come to
look essentially similar by the seventh century, with both dominated by a militarized
landed aristocracy.
vi. the church and the papacy
Just as the traditional aristocracy of Italy was transformed in this period, so
too was the position of the church, especially at Rome. Some elements in
the transition were evident already by the 420s. During the Gothic invasions
of Italy in the early fifth century, bishops such as Chromatius of
Aquileia and Maximus of Turin had shown considerable skill as civic
leaders, rallying their congregations at times of crisis. 70 The uncertain times
of the later fifth and sixth century accelerated this process, and in many
places by the time of the Lombard invasions the bishop had become the
most prominent citizen. Hence, it was bishop Felix of Tarvisium (Treviso)
who negotiated his city’s surrender to Alboin in 568, while Gregory the
Great exhorted the bishops of Terracina, Misenum and Cagliari to maintain
their towns’ defences. 71 There can be no more graphic demonstration
of the rising social prominence of the church than the topographical
changes which occurred in many Italian cities, whereby the civic centre
came to be focused on the main church building. Aquileia provides a stark
example of the phenomenon: in 452 the city was sacked by Attila, and when
it rose again it was enclosed by a smaller circuit of walls which left the old
Roman civic centre, the forum, outside, but which contained the cathedral
church at its heart. 72 Beyond the confines of individual centres, the church
inherited the old Roman administrative and social networks which underlay
the development of episcopal dioceses. 73 In response to its increased
prominence in society, the church developed an elaborate bureaucracy.
Although this evolution is best attested at Rome, the existence of local networks
is demonstrated by the dedications of defensores ecclesiae in a sixthcentury
basilica excavated at Trieste. 74 For all his dreams of a restored
68 Brown, Gentlemen and Officers 46–60, 101–25. 69 Christie (1995) 126–39.
70 Lizzi (1989) chs. 4 and 5. 71 Paul. Diac. Hist. Lang. ii.12; Greg.Mag.Epp. 8.19; 9.21, 195.
72 Jäggi (1990). 73 Otranto (1990) 16–21, 79–93; Rando (1994) 21–34. 74 Zovatto (1966).
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