Cambridge Ancient Hi.. - Index of

settlement and society 545
landholding. Indeed, changes in settlement throughout Italy reflect social
evolution at its most basic level. Between the mid fifth and the early seventh
century, the cities of Italy underwent a profound transformation. As noted
above, ecclesiastical building had substantially altered the sacred topography
of Italian cities, reflecting the enhanced social profile of the church.
Patronage of such ventures varies from centre to centre. In the municipalities,
church construction was largely an expression of patronage by local
secular and ecclesiastical élites. 93 In administrative centres like Rome,
Ravenna or, later, Pavia, much building was undertaken at the expense of
the ruling power, whether Roman, Ostrogothic, Byzantine or Lombard. 94
Imperial and royal patronage also made its mark on cities in terms of
secular architecture. Ravenna, for example, was the seat of late Roman,
Ostrogothic and Byzantine government, so that in addition to fine
churches, it also boasted mausolea and palaces for its rulers, venues for
public entertainment, and buildings such as warehouses necessary for the
upkeep of a major court centre. Palaces were found elsewhere: Theoderic
had residences at Verona and Ticinum (Pavia), while the Lombards
favoured Pavia, Milan and Monza. 95
Cities were susceptible to rather more ominous changes. After 535, war
became a basic fact of life for many communities. The narratives of
Procopius and Paul the Deacon and the correspondence of Gregory the
Great are littered with references to sieges and the renovation or construction
of fortifications. Sometimes the consolidation of existing defences
was not enough. As has been seen, the citizens of many cities in Venetia
chose to abandon the old sites of their towns and move to safer locations
in the lagoons. Elsewhere, the response was to move to higher ground,
sometimes occupying old fortresses first used in the late Roman period.
Excavations of such sites at Invillino in Friuli and Castelseprio near Milan
have yielded very few Germanic artefacts, suggesting that they were occupied
mainly by Roman populations. 96 Meanwhile, in the Byzantine territories
of central and southern Italy, the sixth century saw the development of
well-defended military castra, some of which attracted substantial civilian
populations seeking refuge in uncertain times. 97 Northern parts of Apulia
seem to have suffered considerable urban decline in the wars, with major
centres like Canusium (Canosa) becoming dependent on their neighbours
in the secular and ecclesiastical administration of the region. 98
Change in terms of religious ethos, which had prompted extensive
church building, also brought different social habits which could impinge
93 Ward-Perkins, Public Building 51–84; Caillet (1993).
94 Ward-Perkins, Public Building, esp. 236–45; Wharton (1995) 105–47.
95 Ravenna: Deichmann (1969); Johnson (1988). Other centres: Anon. Val. 14.82, 87; Ward-Perkins,
Public Building 157–70. 96 Christie (1991). 97 Brown (1978).
98 Martin (1993) 146–60; Otranto (1990) 251–8.
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