Handbook of the History of Logic: - Fordham University Faculty

Logic and Theories of Meaning . . . 353
intellect grasps extra-mental things through concepts that designate these things,
including their being taken qua conceived of. The thing understood is the thing
understood as well as the thing understood. Thus, concepts have a mental side and
a ‘thing’ side, so that it is not meaningful to speak of a ‘realistic’ vs. a ‘mentalistic’
interpretation in this context.
Grammatica speculativa: the Modists on modes of signification
Medieval speculative grammar has its origin in ancient Latin grammar as it has
been transmitted in the works of Donatus (4th century) and Priscian (6th century).
In the early Middle Ages grammar was one of the seven liberal arts, in which the
arts that were organised in the so-called trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) took
an important place. Grammatical discussions were influenced by the logicians,
and in their turn the grammarians played an important role in the emergence of
terminist logic, e.g. in the development of the theory of supposition.
The grammarian of the 12th century was an artist and grammar was an art, but
the situation changed under the influence of the recovery of the Aristotelian corpus,
especially the Posterior Analytics, with its emphasis on universal and immutable
entities as objects of science. For the grammarians, who wanted to give grammar
the status of a science, it meant that vocal expressions, which differ from one
language to another, could no longer constitute the true objects of grammar. Thus,
grammarians became philosophers speculating about meaning, not the meaning
of individual words, but meaning in general, the semantic component of language,
which was considered a universal feature of language. The scientific approach to
grammar was accordingly called ‘speculative grammar’.
Around 1270 a new theoretical framework was established, based on the concept
of meaning (significatio), or rather the concept of ‘mode of signifying’ (modus
significandi); the grammarians who wrote within this theory were accordingly
called ‘Modists’ (modistae). The Modists were mostly Parisian masters, who wrote
not only on grammar, but also on logic and metaphysics. The first representatives
are Martin and Boethius of Dacia and their Danish compatriots John and Simon
(all between 1255 and 1270). 27 The most important author is perhaps Radulphus
Brito (± 1290), who provided the most comprehensive discussion of speculative
grammar after Boethius of Dacia. 28 The last significant member of the group was
Thomas of Erfurt (shortly after 1300), whose work is considered the most complete
modistic treatment of grammatical theory available. 29
Representing the “second generation of speculative grammar” 30 , the Modists
codified and refined the pioneer work of scholars such as Peter Helias, Robert Kilwardy
and the early Roger Bacon. As a result of their philosophical background,
they believed that there is a structural parallel (although not a one-to-one correspondence)
between language, thought and reality. Since reality is the same for
27For more information about these modists and their works, see Rosier, [1983, pp. 18–21].
28Pinborg [1982, p. 256].
29Thomas of Erfurt, Grammatica speculativa, in: Bursill-Hall [1971].
30Bursill-Hall [1972, p. 21].