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352
' ETHICS
right or wrong but thinking makes it so"; "Goodness like
everything else is a matter of taste"; "It is the human
mind which bestows values upon things"; are typical
subjectivist statements. Now all these statements, and
the theories which they illustrate, possess the common
characteristic of defining good by reference to a state of
mind on the part of some, most, or all men. They all, that
is to say, imply in one way or another that, if there were
no states of mind, there would be no such thing as good.
But the states of mind by reference to which good is
defined are very various. "By good," says Professor Royce,
in his book Studits of Good and Evil, "we mean whatever
we regard as something to be welcomed, pursued, won,
grasped, held, persisted in, preserved." Moreover, different
theories define such mental states differently.
Subjectivist theories are, accordingly, very numerous.
As it is impossible within the limits ofa single chapter to do
justice to all of them, to specify all the different mental
attitudes which they regard as relevant to the establishment
of good, and to enumerate all the theories in which these
attitudes are embodied, I will select three main types of
fubjectivist theory which may be taken as fairly representative.
These are, first, theories based upon an egoistic
psychology, characteristic examples ofwhich are to be found
in the philosophies ofHobbes and Spinoza ; secondly, a form
of subjectivism which is a variety of Utilitarianism, and of
which Hume may be taken as a characteristic exponent ; and,
thirdly, subjectivist theories which are derived from theories
which are not themselves ethical, for example, scientific
theories about the nature of evolution, or political theories
about the origin and nature of -society. Of these last
Herbert Spencer's ethics affords a good example.
I. THEORIES OF ETHICS BASED
UPON AN EGOISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Psychological Principles of Hobbes (1588-1679).
The writings of Hobbes are more important in the