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1256 PART IV Obstetric and Fetal Sonographybecause of the associated increased risk for hemorrhage, infection,or malignancy. 131NEURENTERIC CYSTNeurenteric cysts represent a posterior enteric remnant causedby incomplete separation of the notochord from the foregutduring embryogenesis. hey typically occur in the posteriormediastinum or in the spinal canal midline. he cysts can havea septated or bilobed appearance. Associated spinal abnormalitiesare typically present but diicult to identify prenatally. 132-135 MRIis a useful adjunct in the further evaluation of the spine. Esophagealduplication cysts should be considered in the diferentialof midline chest cysts.PLEURAL EFFUSIONAny luid in the pleural space is abnormal. If suiciently large,pleural efusion may result in mass efect, leading to compressionof the heart and hydrops as well as compression of the lungs,resulting in pulmonary hypoplasia. 136Primary pleural efusion is rare, with an incidence of up to1 in 15,000 pregnancies. 137,138 It is most oten caused by chylothorax,139 which results from defective development of thelymphatic system. Any insult to the course of the thoracic ductin the posterior mediastinum in the fetal chest can result inchylous fetal pleural efusion. 140 his can be on either the rightor the let side, because the thoracic duct in the posteriormediastinum crosses from right to let at the ith thoracic level.Primary pleural efusion is suspected when the efusion isunilateral or is much larger on one side than the other and whenno other signs of hydrops are present. Primary efusions arecharacterized by having high pressures, resolving rapidly aterthoracentesis and developing hydrops restricted to the upperfetal body. 141Primary chylothorax is associated with aneuploidy in 2% to6% of cases. 142,143 By deinition, chylothorax in neonates is identiiedwhen luid contains more than 1.1 mmol/L triglycerideswith oral fat intake, with lymphocyte proportion exceeding 80%. 144However, the fetus is fasting in utero, and the mean percentageof lymphocytes in the blood of normal fetuses is normally greaterthan 80%. 145 herefore these parameters do not apply in utero.Secondary pleural efusion occurs in association withaneuploidy (Turner syndrome or trisomy 21), infection (TORCH[toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, HIV]),genetic syndromes, and other structural malformations (CPAM,BPS, lymphangiectasia, cardiac anomalies). 142-145 hese syndromestypically present with bilateral pleural efusions (particularly infetuses with hydrops) 140 but occasionally with unilateralefusion.Pleural efusions appear on prenatal ultrasound as anechoicluid collections in the pleural space, leading to the appearanceof the lung loating in the luid, surrounded by the chest walland diaphragm 146 (Fig. 36.10, Video 36.2). Small efusions appearas an anechoic thin rim outlining the lungs and the mediastinum.Larger unilateral efusions result in mass efect, causing mediastinalshit and lattening or eversion of the diaphragm. If isolatedand small, pleural efusions have a benign course. If large withmass efect, untreated fetal pleural efusion has a mortality rateof 22% to 53%. 137,140,147-149Small pleural efusions do not shit the mediastinum.Pleural efusions associated with hydrops may be unilateralor bilateral, oten beginning as unilateral collections that progressbilaterally. Once hydrops develops (cardiac compressionfrom unilateral efusion), distinguishing between primary andsecondary efusion can be diicult. If mediastinal shit is visualizedin association with a small pleural efusion, a chest masssuch as a CDH, CPAM, or BPS should be sought. MRI mayhelp identify associated abnormalities not seen by ultrasound,such as an inconspicuous CPAM or BPS. Depending on thecontent of the pleural luid (lipid, protein, or blood products),diferent signal intensities might be seen with MRI in bothT1- and T2-weighted images that may help establish the causaldiagnosis. 150Prenatal pleural efusion has a variable natural course rangingfrom spontaneous resolution to progressive development ofhydrops and polyhydramnios with high risk for perinatal morbidityand mortality. 140 An efusion ratio can be obtained byultrasound (area of efusion divided by area of thorax) andfollowed with serial examinations. If it elevates, it increases therisk of evolution to hydrops, 141 but no cutof ratio has demonstratedusefulness as a prognostic tool. 151A fetal assessment for associated anomalies, including echocardiography,maternal serology for infections, and fetal karyotyping,should be performed. 141,152 Prognosis depends on the presenceof associated abnormalities, whether it is unilateral or bilateral,the size of hydrothorax, and severity of mediastinal shit. A smallprimary hydrothorax can have spontaneous resolution in 22%of cases. 142 Unilateral efusions, spontaneously resolved efusions,and those without mediastinal shit or hydrops have a 73% to100% survival rate. 140,141Progression from unilateral to bilateral efusions is associatedwith impending hydrops. When large, bilateral, and with mediastinalshit, the mortality rate increases to 52%. 140 With progressionto hydrops, the mortality rate increases to 62%. 140 Secondaryhydrothorax has a worse outcome. he mortality rate in thesecases can be up to 98% depending on size, progression to hydrops,and underlying cause. 140Pleural efusions are treated by drainage if the efusion isisolated (or asymmetrical) without additional anomalies, typicallyin fetuses at risk for developing hydrops (i.e., those with severemediastinal shit or with other signs of hydrops already present). 63Typically, a pleural efusion is drained with a single stick procedure.153 If it recurs, placement of a thoracoamniotic shunt isan option. 154 A series of 65 fetuses showed thoracoamniotic shuntsto have a high survival rate in nonhydropic fetuses of 93%, withsurvival of 86% in the hydropic group. 4 Risks of prenatal thoracoamnioticshunts include fetal hemorrhage, blockage or migrationof the shunt, and placental abruption or preterm labor. In casesof large efusions, drainage immediately before delivery can assistin airway management at birth. A 2007 systematic review ofprenatal intervention for isolated primary pleural efusion withouthydrops suggested that survival rates ater prenatal interventionare as high as 60%. 138
CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1257LeftARightBLeftCDRightRLEFFIG. 36.10 Pleural Effusion. (A) Axial and (B) coronal views of small pleural effusions at 25 weeks (arrows). (C) Axial view of effusion at 28weeks with mild mediastinal shift. (D) Axial view shows moderate bilateral effusions outlining the lungs. The effusions are about the same size,so there is no mediastinal shift. (E) Axial and (F) oblique sagittal views at 17 weeks show a large left effusion (L) with severe mediastinal shift tothe right (R). See also Video 36.2.
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viiiContributorsOlga R. Brook, MDAs
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xContributorsChristy K. Holland, Ph
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xiiContributorsRupa Radhakrishnan,
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xxiiContentsVOLUME IIPART IV Obstet
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xxivVideo ContentsVideo 12.8 Angiog
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xxviVideo ContentsVideo 26.20 High-
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xxviiiVideo Contents42 Fetal Measur
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2 PART I Physicsphysics. he amplitu
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4 PART I Physics× ms×FIG. 1.4 Ult
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6 PART I Physicsθ 1 = 20°Tissue A
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8 PART I Physicssignature. Broad-ba
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10 PART I PhysicsFIG. 1.13 B-Mode I
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12 PART I PhysicsIn these transduce
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14 PART I PhysicsFIG. 1.17 Tissue H
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16 PART I PhysicsKey Points of Ultr
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18 PART I PhysicsA - Normal liverv
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20 PART I PhysicsFIG. 1.27 Reverber
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22 PART I Physics-0 dBUncorrected-0
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24 PART I Physicsθ = 0°cos θ = 1
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26 PART I PhysicsABFIG. 1.38 Color
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28 PART I PhysicsChanges in Doppler
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30 PART I PhysicsABFIG. 1.44 Wall F
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32 PART I PhysicsABCDFIG. 1.46 Alia
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CHAPTER2Biologic Effects and Safety
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36 PART I PhysicsPressurePulse repe
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38 PART I PhysicsUltrasound imaging
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40 PART I Physicsacoustic power and
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42 PART I PhysicsFIG. 2.6 Acoustic
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44 PART I PhysicsThe AIUM Statement
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46 PART I Physics1. Current ultraso
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48 PART I PhysicsEPIDEMIOLOGYWith a
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50 PART I Physicscontrols whether t
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52 PART I Physics70. Hwang JH, Tu J
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54 PART I PhysicsA B 5 μmFIG. 3.1
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56 PART I Physicsstudies with Levov
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58 PART I Physicsabdominal organs.
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60 PART I PhysicsHarmonic B-Mode Im
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62 PART I PhysicsFIG. 3.9 Contrast-
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64 PART I Physicsdramatic manifesta
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66 PART I Physics5 µmFIG. 3.15 Fra
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68 PART I Physicsplatelet lysis), n
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70 PART I PhysicsEnhancement1 2 3 4
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72 PART I Physics46. Hamilton MF, B
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PART TWO: Abdominal and Pelvic Sono
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76 PART II Abdominal and Pelvic Son
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100 PART II Abdominal and Pelvic So
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ABFIG. 5.20 Microabscesses in Two P
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ABFIG. 6.32 Distal Cholangiocarcino
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CHAPTER7The PancreasThomas Winter a
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CHAPTER8The Gastrointestinal TractS
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ABFIG. 8.16 Lymphadenopathy in Two
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A B CD E FG H IFIG. 8.23 Inlammator
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FIG. 8.56 Gastrointestinal Stromal
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CHAPTER9The Kidney and Urinary Trac
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Remnant ofpronephrosMesonephrosBMes
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CHAPTER11The Adrenal GlandsChristin
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CHAPTER12The RetroperitoneumRaymond
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CHAPTER13Dynamic Ultrasound of Hern
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CHAPTER14The PeritoneumAnthony E. H
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CHAPTER15The UterusDouglas Brown an
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CHAPTER16The AdnexaRochelle Filker
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692 PART III Small Parts, Carotid A
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CHAPTER20The Parathyroid GlandsBonn
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*** *FIG. 21.8 Terminal Ductolobula
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CHAPTER22The ScrotumDaniel Sommers
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CHAPTER23Overview of Musculoskeleta
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CHAPTER25Musculoskeletal Interventi
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ABCDFIG. 25.15 Biceps Tendon Sheath
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CHAPTER27Peripheral VesselsMark E.
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ABFIG. 27.29 Chronic Deep Venous Th
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1000 PART III Small Parts, Carotid
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e2APPENDIXUltrasound Artifacts: A V
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FIG. A.18 Comet-Tail Artifact. On c
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e12APPENDIXUltrasound Artifacts: A
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I-2 IndexAcetabulumdescription of,
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I-4 IndexAnemiafetal, hydrops from,
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I-6 IndexAttenuationcoeicient, 36of
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I-8 IndexBlood low. See also Cerebr
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I-10 IndexBreast(s) (Continued)thic
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I-12 IndexCat-scratch disease, pedi
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I-14 IndexChorion laeve, 1465-1466C
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I-16 IndexContrast agents (Continue
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I-18 IndexCyst(s) (Continued) Cyst(
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I-20 IndexDoppler ultrasound (Conti
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I-22 IndexEndocardial cushion(s), 1
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I-24 IndexFibroma(s) (Continued)par
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I-26 IndexGerminal epithelium, 565G
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I-28 IndexHematoma(s) (Continued)pe
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I-30 IndexHoloprosencephaly (HPE) (
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I-32 IndexImplants, breast (Continu
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I-34 IndexJaundice (Continued)bile
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I-36 IndexLipomyelocele, closed spi
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I-38 IndexMammary ductsnormal sonog
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I-40 IndexMolar pregnancy. See Hyda
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I-42 IndexNonrhizomelic chondrodysp
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I-44 IndexPancreas (Continued)percu
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I-46 IndexPeritoneum (Continued)tum
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I-48 IndexPosterior fossa (Continue
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I-50 IndexPyloric musclehypertrophy
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I-52 IndexSample volume size, Doppl
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I-54 IndexSpectral broadening, in D
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I-56 IndexSuperoanteromedial ridge,
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I-58 Indexhrombosis (Continued)of s
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I-60 IndexTrisomy 18 (Edwards syndr
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I-62 IndexUrinary tract, pediatric
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I-64 IndexWalker-Warburg syndromeco
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DIAGNOSTICULTRASOUND
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DIAGNOSTICULTRASOUND5TH EDITIONCARO
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ABOUT THE EDITORSCarol M. Rumack, M
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ContributorsviiCONTRIBUTORSJacques
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ContributorsixPeter M. Doubilet, MD
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ContributorsxiAna P. Lourenco, MDAs
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ContributorsxiiiWendy hurston, MDAs
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In memory of my parents, Drs. Ruth
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PrefacexviiPREFACEhe ith edition of
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AcknowledgmentsxixACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe
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ContentsxxiCONTENTSVOLUME IPART I P
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Video ContentsxxiiiVIDEO CONTENTS4
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Video Contentsxxv19 The Thyroid Gla
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Video Contentsxxvii33 The Fetal Fac
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Video Contentsxxix52 The Pediatric
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DIAGNOSTICULTRASOUND
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PART FOUR: Obstetric and Fetal Sono
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CHAPTER 28 Overview of Obstetric Im
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ABCDFIG. 28.9 Second-Trimester Biom
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CHAPTER 29 Bioeffects and Safety of
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CHAPTER 30 The First Trimester 1049
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CHAPTER 31 Chromosomal Abnormalitie
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ABCDFIG. 31.12 Sonographic Findings
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CHAPTER32Multifetal PregnancyMary C
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CHAPTER 32 Multifetal Pregnancy 111
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ABFIG. 32.5 Sonographic Findings Se
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CHAPTER33The Fetal Face and NeckAna
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CHAPTER 33 The Fetal Face and Neck
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ABCDFIG. 33.13 Hypertelorism With E
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ABCDFIG. 33.16 Dacryocystocele. (A)
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ABCDEFFIG. 33.24 Unilateral Complet
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1167impo
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1169cmAB
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CingulatePOCalcarineAB21 wkCD25 wkI
Page 1345 and 1346:
CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1173FIG.
Page 1347 and 1348:
CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1175LTAR
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1177CC12
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1179SPEC
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1181ABCD
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1183asym
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1185FIG.
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1187Cere
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1189loba
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1191ABCF
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1193ABCF
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1195spor
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ABCCCDEFFIG. 34.24 Type 2 Lissencep
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1199ABFI
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 120120 w
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CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1203Ultr
Page 1377 and 1378: CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1205ABCD
Page 1379 and 1380: VSSABHHPHCDEFFIG. 34.35 Intracrania
Page 1381 and 1382: CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1209VABC
Page 1383 and 1384: CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1211Huma
Page 1385 and 1386: CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1213121.
Page 1387 and 1388: CHAPTER 34 The Fetal Brain 1215221.
Page 1389 and 1390: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1217ABCF
Page 1391 and 1392: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1219L1S3
Page 1393 and 1394: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1221FTFT
Page 1395 and 1396: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1223FIG.
Page 1397 and 1398: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1225TABL
Page 1399 and 1400: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1227Feta
Page 1401 and 1402: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1229MMAB
Page 1403 and 1404: ABCDEFFIG. 35.15 Skin-Covered Myelo
Page 1405 and 1406: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1233diic
Page 1407 and 1408: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1235CCSC
Page 1409 and 1410: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1237chon
Page 1411 and 1412: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 1239BSCT
Page 1413 and 1414: CHAPTER 35 The Fetal Spine 124162.
Page 1415 and 1416: CHAPTER36The Fetal ChestDorothy Bul
Page 1417 and 1418: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1245seco
Page 1419 and 1420: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1247TABL
Page 1421 and 1422: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1249Left
Page 1423 and 1424: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 12511ABC
Page 1425 and 1426: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1253ABCF
Page 1427: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1255cent
Page 1431 and 1432: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1259ABCD
Page 1433 and 1434: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1261RTLT
Page 1435 and 1436: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1263ARig
Page 1437 and 1438: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 12659. B
Page 1439 and 1440: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1267107.
Page 1441 and 1442: CHAPTER 36 The Fetal Chest 1269204.
Page 1443 and 1444: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1271TABL
Page 1445 and 1446: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1273TABL
Page 1447 and 1448: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1275Plac
Page 1449 and 1450: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1277ADop
Page 1451 and 1452: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1279LVRV
Page 1453 and 1454: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1281RARV
Page 1455 and 1456: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1283RARV
Page 1457 and 1458: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1285Norm
Page 1459 and 1460: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1287RVLV
Page 1461 and 1462: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1289RVTA
Page 1463 and 1464: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1291LVRA
Page 1465 and 1466: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1293Aspl
Page 1467 and 1468: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1295PLVL
Page 1469 and 1470: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 1297HR-L
Page 1471 and 1472: CHAPTER 37 The Fetal Heart 129951.
Page 1477 and 1478: CHAPTER 38 The Fetal Gastrointestin
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CHAPTER 38 The Fetal Gastrointestin
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UrogenitalsinusMesonephrosMesonephr
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CHAPTER 39 The Fetal Urogenital Tra
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CHAPTER 40 The Fetal Musculoskeleta
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1413ABFIG.
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ABCDFIG. 41.2 Ascites. (A) Fluid ou
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1417A B CD
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1423later
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1427CHABCH
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1429Monoch
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1431feedin
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1433TABLE
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1435sampli
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1437Predel
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 143973. Ma
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CHAPTER 41 Fetal Hydrops 1441169. I
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CHAPTER42Fetal Measurements: Normal
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 1445F
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 1447T
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 1451p
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 1453d
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 1455A
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 1459A
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 14618
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CHAPTER 42 Fetal Measurements 14631
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CHAPTER43Sonographic Evaluation oft
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CHAPTER 43 Sonographic Evaluation o
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CHAPTER44Cervical Ultrasound and Pr
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CHAPTER 44 Cervical Ultrasound and
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PART FIVE: Pediatric SonographyCHAP
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CHAPTER 45 Neonatal and Infant Brai
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CHAPTER46Duplex Sonography of the N
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CHAPTER 46 Duplex Sonography of the
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CHAPTER47Doppler Sonography of the
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CHAPTER 47 Doppler Sonography of th
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CHAPTER 48 The Pediatric Head and N
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CHAPTER 49 The Pediatric Spinal Can
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RA B CDEFGFIG. 49.27 Neuroblastoma
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CHAPTER50The Pediatric ChestChetan
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CHAPTER 50 The Pediatric Chest 1703
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CHAPTER 51 The Pediatric Liver and
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ABCFIG. 51.39 Hepatosplenomegaly. W
Page 1945 and 1946:
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CHAPTER52The Pediatric Urinary Trac
Page 1949 and 1950:
CHAPTER 52 The Pediatric Urinary Tr
Page 1951 and 1952:
TABLE 52.4 Mean Total Renal Volumes
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CHAPTER53The Pediatric Gastrointest
Page 2007 and 2008:
CHAPTER 53 The Pediatric Gastrointe
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CHAPTER 54 Pediatric Pelvic Sonogra
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CHAPTER 55 The Pediatric Hip and Ot
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Page 2107 and 2108:
Page 2109 and 2110:
ABCDFIG. 55.13 Normal and Dislocate
Page 2111 and 2112:
Page 2113 and 2114:
Page 2115 and 2116:
CHAPTER 56 Pediatric Interventional
Page 2117 and 2118:
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Page 2129 and 2130:
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ABCFIG. 56.15 Access for Drainage o
Page 2133 and 2134:
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Page 2139 and 2140:
Page 2141 and 2142:
APPENDIXUltrasound Artifacts: A Vir
Page 2143 and 2144:
APPENDIX Ultrasound Artifacts: A Vi
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Page 2177 and 2178:
Page 2179 and 2180:
IndexAAA anastomoses. See Arterial/
Page 2181 and 2182:
Index I-3Adnexa (Continued)transvag
Page 2183 and 2184:
Index I-5Arrays, transducer, 11-12A
Page 2185 and 2186:
Index I-7Bioefects (Continued) Biop
Page 2187 and 2188:
Index I-9Brain, neonatal/infant (Co
Page 2189 and 2190:
Index I-11Carcinoma(s) (Continued)
Page 2191 and 2192:
Index I-13Cervix (Continued)for sym
Page 2193 and 2194:
Index I-15Color Doppler ultrasound
Page 2195 and 2196:
Index I-17Cystic artery, 194promine
Page 2197 and 2198:
Index I-19Diabetes mellituschronic
Page 2199 and 2200:
Index I-21Echinococcal disease (Con
Page 2201 and 2202:
Index I-23Exudate ascites, 506-507E
Page 2203 and 2204:
Index I-25Gallbladder (Continued)ad
Page 2205 and 2206:
Index I-27Gyriabnormalities of, in
Page 2207 and 2208:
Index I-29Hernia(s). See also Diaph
Page 2209 and 2210:
Index I-31Hyperechoic tissue, in br
Page 2211 and 2212:
Index I-33Internal jugular vein (IJ
Page 2213 and 2214:
Index I-35Kidneys, pediatric (Conti
Page 2215 and 2216:
Index I-37Liver transplantation (Co
Page 2217 and 2218:
Index I-39Mesentery, small bowel, 5
Page 2219 and 2220:
Index I-41Nasal bone, fetal (Contin
Page 2221 and 2222:
Index I-43Orbits, fetal (Continued)
Page 2223 and 2224:
Index I-45Patau syndrome. See Triso
Page 2225 and 2226:
Index I-47Pleural efusionsfetal, 12
Page 2227 and 2228:
Index I-49Prostate (Continued)thera
Page 2229 and 2230:
Index I-51Renal transplantation (Co
Page 2231 and 2232:
Index I-53Shunt(s) (Continued) Skel
Page 2233 and 2234:
Index I-55Splenic vein (Continued)t
Page 2235 and 2236:
Index I-57Testis(es) (Continued)cys
Page 2237 and 2238:
Index I-59Transcranial Doppler (TCD
Page 2239 and 2240:
Index I-61Umbilical cord, 1481-1487
Page 2241 and 2242:
Index I-63Vein of Galen (Continued)
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