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United States <strong>and</strong> Russian Federation. UNSCR 1540 is the first obligation binding on all UN member states under Chapter VII of the UN Charter to take <strong>and</strong> enforce effective measures against the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). One of its requirements is that all states take <strong>and</strong> enforce effective measures to control nuclear weapons <strong>and</strong> materials in order to reduce the possibility of proliferation or their acquisition by terrorist organizations. 31 Hence it would seem to be a clear point of reference for Washington <strong>and</strong> Moscow in determining policy. A FINAL WORD During the course of the CFE negotiations, a Western arms control expert once remarked that he felt like he was watching 300 years of European hostilities unfold. Critics of this process frequently become so enmeshed in the technical details of definitions, counting rules, stabilizing measures, inspection regimes, etc., that they overlook the connection between these small points <strong>and</strong> the larger security issues. Still, while the devil may well lie in the details, the CFE accord is rooted in the collective attempt of over 30 sovereign states to improve their respective security. National fears <strong>and</strong> historical antagonisms may complicate the flow of negotiations, but they also contribute to the agreement’s enduring value. It is thus important to keep such apparent untidiness in proper perspective as Europe gropes its way to reducing the possibility of conflict through a new architecture based on cooperative security. The search for a new arms control strategy that addresses the question of non-strategic nuclear forces must seek to both extend <strong>and</strong> become a part of exist- 499
ing agreements. It must also combine our past experiences from both conventional <strong>and</strong> nuclear arms control. Finally, even as we profit from lessons of the past, we must also acknowledge the new realities that will govern the security environment of the future. ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 22 1. Dmitri Trenin, “Thinking Strategically About Russia,” speech at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, December 2008, p. 1. 2. Steven Pifer, “The United States, <strong>NATO</strong>’s Strategic Concept, <strong>and</strong> <strong>Nuclear</strong> Issues,” <strong>Nuclear</strong> Policy Paper Number 6, Washington, DC: Arms Control Association <strong>and</strong> British American Security Information Council, April 2011, p. 4. 3. Tom Donilon, “The Prague Agenda: The Road Ahead,” speech at the Carnegie International <strong>Nuclear</strong> Policy Conference, Washington, DC, March 29, 2011. 4. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (<strong>NATO</strong>), Strategic Concept for the Defense <strong>and</strong> Security of the Members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Lisbon, Portgual: <strong>NATO</strong> Press Office, November 2010, pp. 7-8. 5. Simon Lunn, “<strong>NATO</strong> <strong>Nuclear</strong> Policy—Reflections on Lisbon <strong>and</strong> Looking Ahead,” in The NTI Study on <strong>Nuclear</strong> <strong>Weapons</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>NATO</strong>, Washington, DC: <strong>Nuclear</strong> Threat Initiative, 2011, p. 20. 6. Andrei Zagorski, “Russia’s <strong>Tactical</strong> <strong>Nuclear</strong> <strong>Weapons</strong>: Posture, Politics, <strong>and</strong> Arms Control,” Book 156, Hamburg, Germany: Institut für Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik an der Universität Hamburg, February 2011, p. 34. 7. Ian Kearns <strong>and</strong> Simon Lunn, <strong>NATO</strong>’s <strong>Nuclear</strong> Policy after Lisbon—the Summit Documents <strong>and</strong> the Way Ahead, Brussels, Belgium: European Leadership Network for Multilateral <strong>Nuclear</strong> Disarmament <strong>and</strong> Non-Proliferation, January 25, 2011, p. 15. For 500
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***** Comments pertaining to this r
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6. Aspects of the Current Russian P
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21. Arms Control after START ......
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this incredible amount of destructi
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hundreds of U.S. weapons (a
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TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND <stron
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Security was an additional problem.
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embraced lessons learned from the 1
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I learned here of some of the deep
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CHAPTER 1 THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT Ri
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as just another kind of military op
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it, the Allies were unlikely to agr
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• Assets for future arms control
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ments are dissimilar. Whereas Europ
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CHAPTER 2 TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS
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ombs in Europe as strategic weapons
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experiences of war, in a less moral
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Strangelovian image for NAT
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II. 1953-1963. U.S. STRATEGIC SUPER
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• For what political purposes mig
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widely heralded move to flexible re
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clear sentiment for the Alliance <s
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Nevertheless, Germany underst<stron
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first in order to break up his forc
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saw Pact lines to interdict strateg
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The Democratic People’s Republic
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given release authority by the Sovi
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III. 1963-1967. EMERGING DOUBTS CON
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esponse: without it, the Allies wer
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ous arms control groups argue that
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Why Did NATO Keep
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France were equipped with nuclear w
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slowly changing deterrence ethos wa
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through widespread protests, openly
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although it decided that the remain
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e concealed by the regular annual <
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However, concerned by the post-Viet
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ously create a public and</
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ers have repeatedly reemphasized th
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judged to generate (but which may n
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5. “The position we have reached
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24. Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructe
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49. Catherine McArdle Kelleher, “
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76. Joseph F. Pilat and</st
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100. Corroborated by Catherine Kell
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CHAPTER 3 U.S. NUCLEAR WEAPONS POLI
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the North Atlantic Treaty Organizat
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delivery exercised a dominant influ
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conventional strength. 14 In the Pa
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the capability to employ such weapo
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ground-launched short-range nuclear
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curity policy in Asia, and<
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lies. 31 At the strategic a
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mediate postwar period. Washington
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ons throughout the Cold War <strong
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These shifts are the products both
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power and the prol
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7. Robert S. Norris et al., “Wher
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frey A. Larsen and
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near Central Europe and</st
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47. Available from armedservices.ho
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CHAPTER 4 RUSSIAN PERSPECTIVES ON T
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Russian Navy would be particularly
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ers to produce income from Russian
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3. These are the results of polls o
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TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND THE FE
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Russia’s anticipated spending of
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arms race was on, and</stro
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heads; and improve
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national security strategy. Current
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On April 23, 1999, Viktor Nikolaevi
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First of all, the word “obligatio
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By 2004, a young scholar, Aleksei F
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time, it seems to believe that, in
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ence as the chief factor that limit
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their modernization as a response.
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in areas affecting Russian national
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armed struggle at sea for the perio
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centric warfare. Citing both Chines
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tation to maintain security <strong
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PROSPECTS FOR A U.S.-RUSSIAN TREATY
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uild a missile defense system in so
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10. “Ktokhitree: Mir vstupil v er
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36. Sergei Karaganov “Global Zero
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CHAPTER 6 ASPECTS OF THE CURRENT RU
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NATO countries. Du
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allistic missile defense (BMD), <st
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Meanwhile, the factor of China (wit
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Today, in fact, only the nuclear um
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By the same logic, preventing a pot
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diminishes still further Russian in
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1989 —April 12 SHORT-RANGE NUCLEA
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where Russian interest is higher th
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6. Kozin, “Five obstacles.” 7.
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CHAPTER 7 INFLUENCES ON RUSSIAN POL
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general and its ow
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are show of unanimity from nearly a
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ally; it is just that others are ac
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to direct Russian toward multilater
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armor, like T-62 tanks and<
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Reducing Non-Strategic Nucl
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The Russian inventory has been redu
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Under present conditions, the range
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Ws should be multilateral, with the
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continue the practice of conducting
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the General Staff Nikolai Makarov o
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CHAPTER 8 RUSSIAN PERSPECTIVES ON N
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Yet these concerns are most likely
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Bush and Mikhail G
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anyone’s guess. As mentioned abov
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STRATEGY Russian NSNWs attracted in
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lored damage” (zadannyi ushcherb)
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intrigue pertaining to nuclear weap
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eaching political, military, <stron
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Inertia. The longer this position i
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In a similar vein, the Foreign Mini
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THE RUSSIAN NSNW POSITION: LIMITS A
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tated to what it calls an “integr
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ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 8 1. “Zayavlen
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13. The 12th Main Department of the
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PART III EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVES 227
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ope is illustrative of a more funda
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maintaining these weapons or their
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CHAPTER 10 THE ROLE AND PLACE OF TA
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positions, preoccupations,
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cohesion and solid
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ferred to by the now familiar term
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The second track is an effort to de
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The United States. The traditional
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the nuclear discussions apply only
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supported by other members. However
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cerning its nuclear posture. On the
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tial expert on the dangers of nucle
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8. This is reminiscent of the posit
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a London or Paris perspective, thei
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One of the most important factors w
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mer Vice-Chairman of the Joint Chie
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Armed Service Air and</stro
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Nunn in 2007 and 2
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that the debate on a nuclear-free w
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modify the Alliance’s nuclear pos
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years. Signs of progress include th
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on a modified CFE regime an
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9. See Miles A. Pomper, William Pot
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Paper, No. 7, Washington, DC: Arms
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eventual elimination are considered
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In the post-bipolar international s
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levels of enthusiasm, most European
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DIFFERING THREAT ASSESSMENTS AND AL
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troops in 2008 and
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that NATO as a who
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distinction between tactical <stron
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12. Author’s interview with a sen
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19. NATO’s argum
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31. Valasek, p. 24. 32. Lukasz Kule
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CHAPTER 13 EUROPE, NATO</st
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not reached a clear consensus on wh
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In an environment in which there is
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ing of signals within the Alliance.
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NATO foreign minis
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mean that the strategic lan
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weapon holdings did not exceed 225
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attitude to how nuclear weapons wil
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ghanistan will also help to determi
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German territory. On the other h<st
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PART IV AMERICAN PERSPECTIVES 321
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siles and aircraft
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ment of U.S. nuclear weapons in Eur
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that these weapons still have a rol
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with nuclear weapons, and</
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homeland. The trad
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However, if the United States were
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(estimated, to be 150-200) of U.S.
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er-projection capabilities, <strong
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ventional weapons. Unlike the perce
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any U.S. NSNWs deployed or stored i
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ganizational changes in recent year
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It is unrealistic to believe, as so
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Prague agenda with its goal of glob
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has a different set of critical qua
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ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 15 1. Assistant
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15. Ibid., p. xii. 16. Ibid. 17. Ib
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Hans M. Kristensen, “Nucl
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52. See Jeffrey A. Larsen a
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Hence, whatever course the Allies s
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self from the conflict. Of course,
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arguments by and l
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cal to the later stages of this cam
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The fundamentals of Smart Defense a
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deterrence and def
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ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 16 1. These are
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CHAPTER 17 ROLE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
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Two of the greatest enduring threat
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a monkey to an altitude of 120 km (
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including a “dual capable” (nuc
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By the end of the Cold War, in 1991
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U.S. Focus and Int
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eset by conflict, deterrence seeks
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Command in 2010. H
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y arms control and
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into account the disparity between
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Furthermore, the United States <str
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table price human beings must pay t
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16. See www.tradereform.org/wp-cont
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PART V ARMS CONTROL AS AN OPTION 40
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ise as a vehicle for regulating <st
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arms control to address the perceiv
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posite discussion within the contex
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CHAPTER 19 ARMS CONTROL OPTIONS FOR
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U.S. AND RUSSIAN NON-STRATEGIC NUCL
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into the discussion is that it woul
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get missiles on NATO</stron
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ficials have announced a major 10-y
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the INF Treaty banned all INF missi
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Others have also suggested that tra
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ample of the latter, in 1991 Presid
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certain percentage, say 50 percent.
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heads. Nondeployed strategic warhea
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ily in Washington’s judgment, <st
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publican president is less clear at
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10. “Strategic Concept for the De
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CHAPTER 20 TACTICAL NUCLEAR WEAPONS
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Most of the attempted adaptation <s
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ight metric (and t
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weapons (NSNWs)? A look at the key
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other, has ever gained serious cons
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who occasionally address other thea
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Page 496: As in the past, the most likely cau
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Page 529 and 530: that means. Today, this seems to be
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Page 535 and 536: JEFFREY A. LARSEN is a Senior Scien
Page 537 and 538: GUY B. ROBERTS was until recently <
Page 539: U.S. ARMY WAR COLLEGE Major General
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